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History

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Early History

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King Aethelstan (924-39) presenting a copy of Bede's Life of St Cuthbert to the saint himself. This is the earliest known depiction of a crowned English king.

The earliest known use of regalia in England was discovered by archaeologists in 1988 in Deal, Kent and dates to between 200 and 150 B.C. Inside the tomb of the "Mill Hill Warrior" was a bronze crown, a sword, a scabbard, a brooch and a ceremonial shield. Further finds in a Norfolk field near Ely and Thetford, at Hockwold cum Wilton revealed a large number circlets and a bronze crown adorned with human faces.[1] Following the conquest of Britain by the Holy Roman Empire in AD 43 crowns and other symbols of authority continued to be used by the governors of Britannia.[2]

By the 5th century AD the Roman forces withdrew from Britain after they were overwhelmed by the invading forces of the Angles and the Saxons from the east. Following this invasion a series of new kingdoms emerged. One of the methods used by regional kings to solidify their authority over their territories was the use of ceremony and insignia. Contemporary evidence of Anglo-Saxon regalia is difficult to come by as the kings didn't communicate in writing. However, the tomb of an unknown king provides a unique insight into the regalia of the Anglo-Saxon kings. Buried with him is an ornate helmet covered in bronze, decorated with detailed facial features and set with garnets.[3] The king was also buried with a sceptre, a decorated sword and a shield.[4]

Norman England — "Glorious Revolution"

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William I of England.

In 1066 Edward the Confessor died without an heir. William, Duke of Normandy emerged as king of England following his victory over the English at the Battle of Hastings. William worked hard to solidify his authority over his subjects, and his frequent 'crown-wearings' were an important part of this. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that: "He wore his crown three times a year as often as he was in England… On these occasions the great men of England were assembled about him… He was so stern and relentless a man that no-one dared do anything against his will."[5]

In the 12th century the monks of Westminster Abbey claimed that Edward the Confessor had bequeathed to them his regalia and stipulated that it was to be used in the coronation of each subsequent monarch. This claim is largely believed to have been fabricated in order to draw pilgrims to the abbey. At the coronation of Henry III in 1220 the crown was declared to have belonged to Edward the Confessor; thus the concept of a hereditary collection of regalia came to be.[6] This crown, later renamed as St Edward's Crown, was used in subsequent coronations until its destruction by the English Republic four hundred years later. One of the few surviving descriptions of this crown states that it was a "gold crown decorated with diverse stones'."[7] In the 12th century the silver gilt anointing spoon was commissioned, probably for Henry II; it is the oldest surviving piece of regalia used in the Coronation ceremony. The original purpose of the spoon was unclear; it is only since the 17th century that it has been referred to as the "anointing spoon".[8]

 
The Stone of Scone in King Edward's Chair at Westminster Abbey, 1855.

Following the defeat of the Welsh prince Llewelyn ap Gruffydd in 1282 by Edward I the Welsh regalia was surrendered. According to one source, the Welsh "gave up [to Edward I] the crown of the most famous Arthur, the former king of Britain. And thus the glory of Wales and the Welsh was given over to the kings and lords of England."[9] Meanwhile, following the conquest of Scotland, the Stone of Scone was sent to the Tower of London "in recognition of a kingdom surrendered and conquered".[10][11][12] King Edward's Chair was commissioned to house the stone; although not built as such the chair was soon being used for the investiture of the kings of England, earning it's reputation as the "Coronation Chair".[13] In Edward II's treasury, in 1324, there were no fewer than ten crowns, the most extravagant has been valued at approximately a million pounds in today's money.[14] At some point in the 14th century the crown jewels were moved from the jewel house at Westminster Abbey, following a series of successful and unsuccessful thefts, to the Tower of London.[15][16]

The crown-wearing traditions established in the medieval period continued into the Middle Ages.[17][18] By the middle of the 15th century the crown was formally worn on six religious feasts every year: Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, Whitsun, All Saints and one or both of the feasts fo St. Edward. The crown was also displayed and worn at the annual State Opening of Parliament.[19] At about this time swords, symbols of kingship since ancient times, were introduced into the coronation ceremony. Three swords were used to represent the king's powers in the administration of justice; they were the sword of spiritual justice, the sword of temporal justice and the sword of mercy.

WIth increasing political and dynastic stability regalia was beginning to pass increasingly from one king to the next. The first example of this was the sovereign's state crown. When the crown was manufactured is unknown but it is likely that it was created at the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. The frame of the crown was gold and embedded with pearls, rubies, sapphires and diamonds; the crown was decorated with fleur de lys and crosses each of which was decorated with images of christian religious figures and former monarchs of England.[20][21] Another emerging item of regalia was the orb, 'a Rounde ball with a cross of gold', being mentioned in several tudor inventories.[22] The concept of the state regalia as entirely hereditary was solidified in law when James I decreed that named 'Roiall and Princely Ornaments and Jewells' were 'to be indyvidually and inseparably for ever hereafter annexed to the Kingdome of this Realme'.[23]

Interregnum to present day

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Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England from 1653 - 1658, who ordered the abolition of the monarchy and the sale of the crown jewels.

Following the death of James I, Charles I came to the throne. His many conflicts with parliament, stemming from his belief in the divine right of kings, and the many religious conflicts that permeated his reign, triggered the English Civil War. After six years of war, Charles was defeated and executed by the parliamentarians. Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of England and less than a week after the king's execution the monarchy was abolished. The newly created English republic found itself in a desperate financial situation following the war. In order to raise funds the 'Act for the sale of the personal estate of the King, Queen and Prince' was promulgated and trustees were appointed to value the jewels and sell them to the highest bidder.[24] The most valuable of these objects was the Tudor State Crown, valued at £1,100 (£1,740,000 as of 2011);[25] it was set with 28 diamonds, 19 sapphires, 37 rubies and 168 pearls.[26]

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Parfitt, Iron Age Burials from Mill Hill, Deal, and Keith Parfitt, personal communication, January 2009
  2. ^ Twining, European Regalia, p. 7; Byzantium 330 - 1453, cat. no 5.
  3. ^ "Sutton Hoo ship-burial helmet". British Museum. Retrieved 04/11/2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  4. ^ Bruce-Mitford, Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, vol. 2
  5. ^ Nelson, 'The Rites of a Conqueror', in Anglo-Norman Studies IV, pp. 117 - 32
  6. ^ Lightbown, 'The English coronation regalia before the Commonwealth', in Blair, Crown Jewels, vol. 1, pp. 257 - 353
  7. ^ See Carpenter, 'The Burial of King Henry III, the regalia and royal ideology', in Reign of Henry III; for the appearance of the medieval St Edward's Crown, see Lightbrown, 'The English coronation regalia before the Commonwealth'.
  8. ^ Ibid, p. 192; Blair, Crown Jewels, vol.2 pp.295 ff.
  9. ^ British Library, MS Harley 3725, fol. 50r (Chronicle of Aberconwy Abbey).
  10. ^ Prestwich, Edward I, pp. 473 - 74
  11. ^ Morris, Great and Terrible King
  12. ^ Binski, 'A "sign of victory": the Coronation Chair, its manufacture, setting and symbolism', in Welander, Breeze and Clancy, Stone of Destiny, pp. 207 - 22.
  13. ^ Welander, Breeze and Clancy, Stone of Destiny, p. 148: on 18 June 1297 'the regalia of the kingdom of Scotland' was given to St Edward's shrine, including a 'large stone on which the kings of Scotland were wont to be crowned'.
  14. ^ Ancient Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of His Majesty's Exchequer, vol. 3, pp. 138 - 39. This figure is based on the average earnings index, as cited in Lawrence H. Officer, 'Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to 2007', http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/
  15. ^ Tout, 'A medieval burglary', in Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 2 (1915), pp. 348 - 69, and Jeremy Ashbee, personal communication.
  16. ^ Ashbee, 'The structure and function of the White Tower 1150 - 1485', in Impey, White Tower, p. 152.
  17. ^ Biddle, 'Seasonals festivals and residence: Winchester, Westminster and Gloucester in the tenth to twelfth centuries', in Brown, Anglo-Norman Studies VIII, pp. 51 - 72
  18. ^ Kisby, 'The Early-Tudor Royal Household Chapel, 1485 - 1547'.
  19. ^ Cobb, 'Description of the state opening of parliament, 1485 - 1601: a survey', in Parliamentary History, 18:3 (1999), in Hoak, Tudor Political Culture, pp. 243ff.
  20. ^ 'The inventory of the regalia and gold plate of Henry VIII', Ancient Kalendars, vol. 3
  21. ^ Lightbown, 'The English coronation regalia before the commonwealth'.
  22. ^ Hoak, 'The coronations of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I', in Westminster Abbey Reformed, p. 123, lift of regalia to be 'prepared owte of the jewelhouse' for Elizabeth's coronation.
  23. ^ Collins, Jewels and Plate of Queen Elizabeth I, p. 169.
  24. ^ MacGregor, Arthur, The Late King's Goods: Collections, Possessions and Patronage of Charles I in the light of the Commonwealth Sale Inventories. Oxford, 1989.
  25. ^ Officer, Lawrence. "Purchasing Power of British Pounds 1264 - present". Measuring Worth. Retrieved 07/11/2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  26. ^ Millar, Inventories and Valuations of the King's Goods, p. 48.

References

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  • Bodleian Library, Ashmole Manuscripts
  • Garrard and Company, Coronation Accounts
  • The National Archives: records of the Jewel Office are to be founnd mostly in LC5, and accounts for royal ceremonies in LC2, LC5 and LC9
  • National Art Library, Victoria & Albert Museum, George Fox 'Account of the Firm of Rundell, Bridge and Co.', c.1843-46
  • Society of Antiquaries of London, Sitwell Papers
  • The Accession of Queen Mary: being the contemporary narrative of Antonio de Guaras, a Spanish merchant resident in London. London, 1892
  • Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantageet England 1200 - 1400, edited by Jonathan Alexander and Paul Binski, catalogue of an exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts, 1987 - 88. London, 1987
  • The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and edited by G.N. Garmonsway, London, 1972
  • The Antient Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of His Majesty's Exchequer, edited by Francis Palgrave, 3 vols. London, 1836
  • Arnold, Janet, 'The "Coronation" portrait of Queen Elizabeth I', Burlington Magazine, 120 (November 1978), pp. 727 - 41
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