User:ImagingMatters/Hemorrhagic infarct/Bibliography
Hemorrhagic Infarcts are determined when hemorrhage is present around an area of infarction. Simply stated, an infarction is an area of dead tissue. When blood escapes outside the vessel and re-perfuses back into the surrounding tissue, the infarction is then termed a hemorrhagic infarct.[1]
Infarcts typically occur due to one of two reasons. One is due to hypoxia or a lack of oxygen to tissue. The other is called ischemia which occurs when there is a lack of blood flow to the tissues. Ischemia is more serious and can be caused by several factors. These factors include atherosclerosis, thrombus, embolism, trauma to vessels, neoplasms, cytomegalovirus, encapsulation or external compression of a vessel, or if a vessel becomes twisted, such as in torsion.[1][2]
Tissue color is used to classify two type of infarcts. White infarcts (anemic or pale infarcts) are used to describe a soft, pale area of tissue and occur in organs that have a single supply of blood and solid parenchyma.[1] Typical organs that experience an anemic infarct include the heart, kidneys and spleen.[2] Red (hemorrhagic) infarcts have a dual blood supply and appear red to brown in color due to the hemorrhage of blood perfusing back into the tissue from a collateral or secondary vessel. These organs have a loose parenchyma, such as the lungs, brain and GI tract.[2]
Cerebral Hemorrhagic Infarct: Otherwise known as hemorrhagic stroke and account for approximately 15% of all strokes. Classified according to one of four origination sites, intracerebral (ICH), subarachnoid (SAH), subdural, or epidural. Both subdural and epidural hemorrhages are most always caused by trauma, therefore, they are not considered hemorrhagic strokes.[3]
- Hypertension is the predominate cause of ICH. In ICH, clinical presentation of signs and symptoms is dependent on the location of affected structures in the brain and which vessel is involved. A non-contrast Cat Scan of the head should be utilized as the primary imaging modality during initial diagnosis. Prognosis and treatment are determined by location and size of the hemorrhage.[3]
- SAH is most commonly caused by the rupture of an aneurysm usually at the base of the brain. Prior to rupture symptoms include "headache, diplopia or blurred vision". After rupture, the headache is typically described as the "worst headache of my life" and other symptoms can include nausea, vomiting and loss of consciousness. Neurological signs can develop as the hemorrhage flows into surrounding tissues. Initial imaging will include a non-contrast CT head possibly followed by the use of contrast media to perform CT angiography of the vessels in the brain to detect the aneurysm site if the non-contrast CT head is negative. Treatment can include surgical or endovascular intervention with clips or coils to prevent re-rupture or ventricular drainage or shunting due to hydrocephalus. Cerebral vasospasm can occur up to two weeks after the SAH which can cause further ischemia because of the vessel narrowing during the spasm.[3]
Pulmonary Hemorrhagic Infarction: Commonly occurs when a distal pulmonary artery becomes occluded following a pulmonary embolism or other lung pathologies that can include malignancy, infection, vasculitis. A large percentage (77%- 87%) of lung infarctions occur unilaterally, and typically in the lower lobes compared to the upper lobes. Symptoms of pulmonary infarction and pulmonary embolism are similar. Dyspnea, chest pain, pain and swelling in a lower extremity, and hemoptysis are common symptoms in both. Chest X-Ray can demonstrate a "Hampton's Hump" when pulmonary infarction is present, but Cat Scan is more commonly used. Treatment is dictated by the underlying cause of the pulmonary infarction which has a broad differential diagnosis that should be considered during treatment. The underlying cause will assist in a treatment plan to include level of care during initial management and the involvement of various specialists as pulmonary infarction can be deadly.[4]
Gastrointestinal Hemorrhagic Infarct:
Myocardial Infarct:
Renal Infarct:
Splenic Infarct:
References:
- ^ a b c Dennis, Martin; Mead, Gillian; Forbes, John; Graham, Catriona; Hackett, Maree; Hankey, Graeme J; House, Allan; Lewis, Stephanie; Lundström, Erik; Sandercock, Peter; Innes, Karen; Williams, Carol; Drever, Jonathan; Mcgrath, Aileen; Deary, Ann (2019-01). "Effects of fluoxetine on functional outcomes after acute stroke (FOCUS): a pragmatic, double-blind, randomised, controlled trial". The Lancet. 393 (10168): 265–274. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(18)32823-x. ISSN 0140-6736.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon C.; Deyrup, Andrea T.; Das, Abhijit (2023). Robbins, Stanley L. (ed.). Robbins & Kumar basic pathology (11th edition ed.). Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-79018-5.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ a b c Halter, Jeffrey B., ed. (2022). Hazzard's geriatric medicine and gerontology (Eighth edition ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-1-260-46446-7.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ Emerling, Alec; Cook, Jeffrey (2024), "Pulmonary Infarction", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 30725874, retrieved 2024-04-14
Outline of proposed changes:
Expand the definition and explain the difference is between an infarct and a hemorrhagic infarct
Provide explanations of various hemorrhagic infarcts specific to body regions
Provide readers with more information and knowledge on hemorrhagic infarcts
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