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Sexism refers to the ideology that one gender is superior to the other; sexism goes beyond systems of ideas. Rather, sexism can be explained in terms of its relationship with the creation of masculinity and femininity and the organization and practice of these gender projects [1] (Connell, 2005). Sexism can also be articulated as prejudice plus power. Power is often an overlook factor, but it is important because it explains why in patriarchal societies women cannot be sexist towards men. To highlight the difference between sexism and gendered prejudice, note that women in patriarchal societies cannot be sexist towards men, but they can hold gendered prejudice against them. This illustrates why prejudice is part of sexism, but not sexism itself. Although some individuals have identified different types of sexism (hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, and accidental or unintentional sexism), they miss that in reality, there is only one type of sexism. The “types of sexism” that they describe are part of the everyday exchanges of sexism that stem from a sexist culture and the institutionalized gender order.
Thus, sexism in academia refers to the set of ideologies, practices, and reinforcements that position one gender superior to the other. In most patriarchal societies sexism in academia refers to the subordination of women in academic spaces. The subordination of women in academia is carried out through the institutionalization of sexism in the institutions’ structure and cultural sexism [2] [3](Armato, 2014; Savigny, 2014).
Sexism in academia encompasses institutionalized and cultural sexism as well as the different experiences of sexism. Sexism in academia is not limited to the admission processes based on sexist ideologies and the under-representation of women in the sciences. It also includes the denial of tenure, recognition, awards, grants, and positions to women because they are preferentially given to men.
Some individuals have argued that there are equal opportunities for women and men in sciences and that sexism does not exist anymore [4] [5](Dickey, 2011; Gilbert, 2012). These claims are often attributed to women’s “preference” and inclination for other fields and to teaching instead of research. However, such claims do not take into account that gender is central to the organization of Higher Education [3](Savigny, 2014). This might explain women’s under-representation in academia at more senior levels, and the way in which the organization of Higher Education Institutions might be structurally disadvantaging women by the institutionalization, practice, and valuing of masculinity which ends up reinforcing hegemonic masculinities [2][3][6](Armato, 2014; Savignny, 2014; Wolffensberger, 1993). There is no doubt of the outnumber of men and women in the science and engineering subjects, but sexism is also present in the humanities. Women are not represented in senior jobs in the humanities in despite that most students in these fields are women (American Psychological Association, 2000).
Notes
edit- ^ Connell, Raewyn (2013). The social organization of masculinity. New York: Routledge.
- ^ a b Armato, M (2013). "Wolves in sheep's clothing: Men's enlightened sexism & hegemonic masculinity in Academia". Women’s Studies. 42(5).
- ^ a b c Savigny, H (2014). "Women, know your limits: cultural sexism in academia". Gender & Education.
- ^ Dickey, Z. "Science gender gap probed".
- ^ Gilbert, N. "Equal prospects for both sexes in science".
- ^ Wolffensberger, J (1993). "Science is truly a male world: The interconnectedness of knowledge, gender and power within university education". Gender and Education. 5.
American Psychological Association (2000). Women in academe: Two steps forward, one step back. Washington, DC: Author.
Armato, M. (2013). Wolves in sheep’s clothing: Men’s enlightened sexism & hegemonic masculinity in Academia. Women’s Studies, 42(5), 578–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/00497878.2013.794055
Connell, Raewyn (2013). The social organization of masculinity. In Carole R. McCann & Seung-kyung Kim (Eds), Feminist theory reader: Local and global perspectives, (pp. 252-263, 3rd edition). New York: Routledge. (Original work published on 2005).
Dickey, Z. (2011). Science gender gap probed. Nature 470: 153. http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110207/full/470153a.html
Gilbert, N. (2012). Equal prospects for both sexes in science. Nature, February 17. News and Comment. http://www.nature.com/news/equal-prospects-for-both-sexes-in-science-1.10053
Savigny, H. (2014). Women, know your limits: cultural sexism in academia. Gender & Education, 26(7), 794-809.
Wolffensberger, J. (1993). Science is truly a male world: The interconnectedness of knowledge, gender and power within university education. Gender and Education, 5, 37–54.