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Sōtō monk in Arashiyama, Kyoto

Sōtō Zen (Ch. Caodong), or Sotoshu (the Sōtō school) as it is known in Japan, represents one of the largest sects of Buddhism in Japan (second only to Pure Land Buddhism). As of 2006, the Sotoshu has 14,702 temples in Japan.[1] According to William M. Bodiford, "Today the Sōtō Zen school constitutes the largest single religious denomination in Japan. In this statement, one must emphasize the word 'single.' Pure Land Buddhism boasts a great number of temples—about 30,000—but they are divided among some ten (or more) separate legal entities, the largest of which (Jōdo Shinshū Honganjiha) commands the allegiance of about 10,0000 temples. Sōtō Zen, in contrast, consists of more than 14,000 temples and monasteries, all of which coexist within a single institutional structure."[2] In addition to the sect's large presence in Japan, Soto Zen is also the most common form of Zen Buddhism practiced in Western countries.[3] The sect was first established as the Caodong sect during the Tang Dynasty in China by Dongshan Liangjie in the 9th century, which Dogen Zenji then brought to Japan in the 13th century. It should be noted, however, that Dogen is remembered today as the co-patriarch of Sōtō Zen in Japan along with Keizan Jōkin.[2][4] One of the signature features of this school is found in its practice of shikantaza, a particular approach to zazen which is sometimes referred to as "just sitting" or "silent illumination."[5] Historically speaking—Soto Zen was often termed "farmer Zen" (derogatory term) due to its mass appeal among "common people", while the Rinzai school was often called "samurai Zen" due to the many samurai among its ranks.[6][7] The latter term for the Rinzai can be somewhat misleading, however, as the Soto school also had samurai amidst its rosters.[8]

The two head temples of the Sōtō sect are Eiheiji and Sōji-ji. While Eiheiji owes its existence to Dogen, throughout history this head temple has had significantly less sub-temple affiliates than the Sōji-ji. During the Tokugawa period, Eiheiji had approximately 1,300 affiliate temples compared to Sōji-ji's 16,200. Furthermore, out of the more than 14,000 temples of the Soto sect today—13,850 of those identify themselves as affiliates of Sōji-ji. Additionally, most of the some 148 temples that are affiliates of Eiheiji today are only minor temples located in Hokkaido—founded during a period of colonization during the Meiji period. Therefore, it is often said that Eiheiji is a head temple only in the sense that it is "head of all Sōtō dharma lineages."[2]

History

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Early period

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Dōgen Zenji, credited founder of the Sōtō sect in Japan

The early beginnings of the Sōtō sect in Japan are traced back to 1227, the date in which Dōgen returned to Japan after studying Ch'an in China and settled at Kenninji in Kyoto. In China Dogen had received Dharma transmission from Tiantong Rujing at the same monastery that Hongzhi Zhengjue was once abbot—Hongzhi being an individual whose own writings on "silent illumination" had greatly influenced Dogen's own conception of shikantaza.[9] The Eihei kōroku claims that, unlike many of the other Japanese monks who had also traveled to China during this period, Dogen returned to Japan with no artifacts or texts from his journey. Instead, he came only with his own realization and physical body. This is untrue, however, as he did return with various koan anthologies and other papers; thus, Dogen effectively introduced Japan to the koan tradition.[10] John Whitney Hall writes, "In the first works he wrote after his return to Japan, the Fukan zazenji (Principles for the universal promotion of zazen) and Bendōwa (Distinguishing the Way), he advocated zazen (seated meditation) as the supreme Buddhist practice for both monks and laypersons. This assertion of the primacy of Zen aroused the anger of the Enrayakuji monks, who succeeded in driving Dōgen from the Kenninji where he had settled after his return to the capital."[11] Next, according to Philip B. Yampolsky, "Finding the atmosphere of Kyoto not conducive to his aims, Dōgen transferred his activities to the remote area of Fukui where he established a monastery in 1243. Here he devoted himself to the strict instruction of his disciples. But with the premature death of Dōgen the group lost its focus and internal conflicts led to a split. Dōgen's followers soon introduced such esoteric elements as prayers and incantations into the teaching. By the time of the Fourth Patriarch, Keizan Jōkin (1286—1325), Sōtō Zen was no longer centered in Fukai, but had begun to spread throughout the country."[12] The monastery in Fukui which Dōgen founded in 1243 (to which Yampolsky refers) is Eiheiji, one of the two head temples of Sotoshu today.

Split

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Founder's Hall at Sōji-ji in Yokohama

Dōgen was succeeded in death by his disciple Koun Ejō, who like Dōgen believed in the primacy of Zen Buddhism and resisted efforts from outside to water down the tradition with other beliefs. The split which Yampolsky refers to occurred following the death of Koun Ejō, of which Bernard Faure writes, "But after the latter's death (Koun Ejō), the Eiheiji community is said to have split over Dōgen's succession, during what came to be called the third-generation controversy, a conflict that seems to have involved conservative elements, partisans of a strict adherence to Dōgen's "purism," and those who, with Ejō's successor, Gikai (1219—1309), advocated an openness to esoteric Buddhism and local cults. Gikai was evicted from Eiheiji and took refuge in a monastery in Kaga province, Dajōji (in Ishikawa prefecture). Keizan thus belonged to this dissident branch of the Sōtō sect which, thanks to him and his disciples, would become the majority party and by the same token, for a long time, the party of orthodoxy."[13] Keizan went on to found Yoko-ji in Ishikawa prefecture in 1312, and thereafter opened Sōji-ji. In another passage Bernard Faure writes, "According to tradition, in 1322 a decree from Emperor Go-Daigo, who had received from Keizan the Bodhisattva Precepts, made Sōjiji into an officially recognized monastery. Two years later Keizan passed the direction of this monastery on to his disciple Gasan Jōseki while he himself went back to Yōkoji to spend his remaining days, according to the wish he had expressed in in the Record of Tōkoku."[14] Yōkoji was Keizan's main temple, and, "despite Keizan's high hopes for Yōkoji, it was another of his foundations, Sōjiji, that would prosper after his death, thanks to Gasan Jōseki and his disciples. In spite of efforts at restoration undertaken at the end of the last century (efforts that still continue), Yōkoji remains a barren spot."[15]

Patriarchy

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Central gate at Eiheiji

Even though Dōgen is today considered an original patriarch of the Sōtō sect, according to Charles S. Prebish and Steven Heine, "...for long periods he was regarded as no more important than several other ancestors, particularly fourth patriarch Keizan and Guin, the fifth patriarch of Dōgen's temple Eiheiji, which often competed with the main temple founded by Keizan, Sōjiji, originally situated in the Noto peninsula but relocated to Yokohama in 1898."[16] While Keizan is considered today to be an original patriarch (some sources say fourth patriarch) of the Sōtō sect along with Dōgen, in 1877 the heads of the Sōtō community acknowledged him for a brief period as the overall founder of the Sōtō sect. According to William M. Bodiford, "In 1877 the Sōtō hierarchy announced new dates based on the solar calender for yearly rituals. The true significance of that announcement, however, went beyond the abandonment of the lunar calender. For the first time memorial services for Keizan were included among the annual events observed at all Sōtō temples. Today that proclamation is said to mark the date when Keizan gained official recognition as the patriarch of the entire Japanese Sōtō school. Previously, the only Japanese patriarch common to all Sōtō factions had been Dōgen. Keizan, by contrast, was known not as a source of religious authority but as the founder of Sōjiji, the head temple of the largest Sōtō faction."[17] According to an essay by Hisao Inagika, Dogen had, "involved himself in what we may refer to as a lay movement in the early days of his missionary career in Kyōto, after his retreat to the Eiheiji Monastery in Fukui (and particularly in his later years at the Monastery), he seemingly preferred monastic discipline. It is precisely for this reason that today the Japanese Sōtō Zen cites two patriarchs, viz., Dōgen, who is referred to as the "kōso," and Keizan, who is referred to as the "taiso." Both terms mean the original patriarch, that is, the founder of Japanese Sōtō Zen tradition."[4]

Marriage

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Women

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Ordination

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The below sections cover the ordination (or tokudo)[18] ceremonies of the Sotoshu. It should be noted that, concerning the priesthood, the time lapse between these ceremonies is often significantly shorter for Japanese ordinands than for those in the United States. This is because most Western students who come to Soto Zen practice are largely unfamiliar with many of the ins and outs that Japanese priests might take for granted. For, in Japan, most individuals who go into the priesthood are males who were raised in a family temple and have therefore become acquainted with the tradition at an earlier age.[5]

Zaike tokudo

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When a layperson is ready to receive the 16 Bodhisattva Precepts—typically only after several years of practice—they undertake the study of ethical precepts and then undergo a public ceremony known as zaike tokudo (meaning "home-dwellers ordination"). During this ceremony the student receives the 16 Bodhisattva Precepts and is given a Buddhist name, a rakusu (often sewn by the student) and a kechimyaku (a lineage chart from Shakyamuni Buddha to one's teacher).[5] Outside of Japan, this ceremony might sometimes be called a jukai ceremony, though the same is not true in Japan.

Shukke tokudo

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When a student is ready to receive ordination as a priest—an ordination reserved for only the most dedicated practitioner who has several years of training—then a ceremony known as shukke tokudo is held (meaning "home-leaver's ordination"). These individuals must feel a sense of calling to the priesthood, and only when their teacher confirms their readiness will the ceremony move forward. If affirmation is granted, the student will commence upon sewing themselves an okesa (monastic robe) and will also initiate studies of ethical precepts not unlike that carried out in the zaike tokudo. During the actual ceremony, the ordinand will receive the 16 Bodhisattva Precepts, have their head shaved, receive their okesa, the kechimyaku, and oryoki bowls.[5]

Shuso hossenshiki

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When a priest—and in some Western countries a layperson—is ready for the next stage of progression, they will undergo a shuso hossenshiki ceremony (or, "chief seat's dharma combat ceremony"). These individuals assume the role of shuso (or, head monk), assuming the teacher's seat and giving either a Dharma talk or expounding upon a koan. The shuso will then hold a question and answer session with the entire sangha in attendance at the ceremony. This is one of the few occasions in the Sotoshu wherein koans are remarked upon in official ceremony.[19] Following the shuso hossenshiki, most priests will undergo an additional few years of studying doctrine and more training before they receive their final ceremony, known as shiho (or, Dharma transmission). In the case of the United States, lay shuso may go on to hold various teaching positions but will never be able to ordain others or transmit precepts.[5]

Shiho

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Shiho refers to a series of ceremonies wherein which a priest receives full ordination—inheriting the dharma from their master and becoming empowered to transmit the precepts and lineage to others. A shiho ceremony can last anywhere from one to three weeks, with the final ceremony consisting of two specific ceremonies. The first is transmission of the precepts from master to student, known as denkai, where the master confirms that the student has actualized the precepts in their day to day life.[20] In this ceremony the student becomes, "the blood of the Buddha."[21] The second, denpo, is the Dharma transmission ceremony where the student inherits the Dharma and is empowered to transmit the lineage.[22] In the denpo ceremony, the student becomes an ancestor of the tradition and receives a robe and bowl, among other objects.[21] Also during the denpo ceremony the student receive a Shoshike certificate (which grants them the power to perform Jukai) and also the three documents known as the "three regalia of transmission": shisho (inheritance certificate), odaiji (a diagram symbolizing the Great Matter) and shoden ketchimyaku (bloodline of Dharma transmission). Following completion of these ceremonies the priest can then teach independently and/or serve as abbot of a temple.[23][24] The actual transmission ceremony takes place at midnight in a red room, where only the teacher and student are in attendance.[5]

20th century

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Canada

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Europe

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Japan

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Russo-Japanese War

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Russo-Japanese War

Militarism

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WWII

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Modern

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At the 1979 World Conference on Religion and Peace the secretary general (Machida Muneo) of the Sōtō sect denied that social discrimination existed in Japan—an event commonly referred to as the "Machida Incident." However, in 1984 Muneo did finally admit that there was a long history of social discrimination in the Sōtō sect itself, and consequently formed several committees to try and solve the problem. Although much of the controversy that once surrounded this incident has long past, and the Sōtō sect continues to publish materials on the subject, many Japanese are still bitter toward the school both for the denial and history of such practices.

Komazawa University

United States

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Soto Zen Buddhist Association

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Juergensmeyer, 136
  2. ^ a b c Remembering Dogen
  3. ^ Ford, 54
  4. ^ a b Religion and Culture in Canada, 218-219
  5. ^ a b c d e f Senauke
  6. ^ Harvey, 165
  7. ^ Coleman, 53
  8. ^ Lu, 118
  9. ^ Leighton, 17
  10. ^ Kōans in the Dōgen Tradition
  11. ^ Hall, 625
  12. ^ Yampolsky, 4-5
  13. ^ Faure, 47
  14. ^ Faure, 7
  15. ^ Faure, 8
  16. ^ Buddhism in the Modern World
  17. ^ Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan, 81
  18. ^ Oldmeadow, 176
  19. ^ The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism; 25
  20. ^ Loori, 228
  21. ^ a b Anderson, xxi-xxii
  22. ^ O'Halloran, 205
  23. ^ Kay, 236
  24. ^ Spuler, 58

Bibliography

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  • Anderson, Reb (2001). Being Upright: Zen Meditation and the Bodhisattva Precepts. Rodmell Press. ISBN 0962713899. OCLC 44414111.
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