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Visual representation of alpha decay

Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and thereby transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less. For example:

²³⁸
₉₂U
→ ²³⁴
₉₀Th^2-
+ ⁴
₂He²⁺

which can also be written as:

²³⁸
U
→ ²³⁴
Th
+
α
.

An alpha particle is the same as a helium-4 nucleus, which has mass number 4 and atomic number 2.

Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind (in nuclear fission, a number of different pairs of daughters of approximately equal size are formed). Alpha decay is the most likely cluster decay because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the helium-4 product nucleus (the alpha particle).

Alpha decay, like other cluster decays, is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, alpha decay is governed by the interplay between the nuclear force and the electromagnetic force.

Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. In theory it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum, and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers 106–110) of tellurium (element 52).

Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is, ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg) and a speed of 15,000 km/s. This corresponds to a speed of around 0.05 c. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy produced (see equations in the Geiger–Nuttall law).

Because of their relatively large mass, +2 electric charge and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, so their forward motion is effectively stopped within a few centimeters of air.

Most of the helium produced on Earth (approximately 99% of it) is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a byproduct of natural gas production.

History

Alpha source beneath a radiation detector

Alpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He²⁺ ions. For more details of this early work, see Alpha particle#History of discovery and use.

By 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of the alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped in a potential well by the nucleus. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the then newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of "tunneling" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived from first principles a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically, and was known as the Geiger–Nuttall law.

Mass-Energy Calculation

The energy of an alpha particle produced in a particular decay can be calculated by determining, from the masses of the parent and daughter isotopes, the amount of missing mass. Consider the decay of radon-222 to form an alpha particle and an atom of polonium-218; this reaction can be written as:

²²²
₈₆Rn
→ ²¹⁸
₈₄Po
+ ⁴
₂He

Using atomic masses, in atomic mass units (amu) for neutral atoms of these isotopes:

Isotope	Isotope Mass
222 86Rn	+222.017577269 u
218 84Po	- 218.008972569 u
4 2He	-     4.002603254 u
Difference	=   0.006001446 u

The neutral radon-222 atom starts with 86 orbital electrons. The polonium-218 daughter isotope still has the same 86 orbital electrons; the alpha particle has none. In the calculation above, the isotope mass used for the polonium-218 is for the neutral atom with only 84 orbital electrons; the isotope mass used for the alpha particle is for the neutral helium-4 atom with 2 orbital electrons. Thus, both the actual reaction and the calculation start and end with 86 orbital electrons.

This 0.006001446 u of missing mass, converted to MeV, gives a total energy released for the decay of 5.590107 MeV. Conservation of energy and of momentum require that this energy be divided between the two product atoms in inverse proportion to their masses. Thus, the calculated energy for the alpha paartice is

Uses

Americium-241, an alpha emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air between a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm.

Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, for example, requires only 2.5 millimetres of lead shielding to protect against unwanted radiation.

Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to more rapidly dissipate.

Toxicity

Being relatively heavy and positively charged, alpha particles tend to have a very short mean free path, and quickly lose kinetic energy within a short distance of their source. This results in several MeV being deposited in a relatively small volume of material. This increases the chance of cellular damage in cases of internal contamination. In general, external alpha radiation is not harmful since alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells. Even touching an alpha source is usually not harmful, though many alpha sources also are accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and alpha emission is also accompanied by gamma photon emission. If substances emitting alpha particles are ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin, then it could result in a measurable dose.

The relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of alpha radiation is higher than that of beta or gamma radiation. RBE quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, for equivalent radiation exposure. The higher value for alpha radiation is generally attributable to the high linear energy transfer (LET) coefficient, which is about one ionization of a chemical bond for every angstrom of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta radiation and ionizing photons.

However, another component of alpha radiation is the recoil of the parent nucleus, termed alpha recoil. Due to the conservation of momentum requiring the parent nucleus to recoil, the effect acts much like the 'kick' of a rifle butt when a bullet goes in the opposite direction. This gives a significant amount of energy to the recoiling nucleus, which also causes ionization damage. The total energy of the recoil nucleus is readily calculable, and is roughly the weight of the alpha (4 u) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 u) times the total energy of the alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nuclei are typically heavy metals which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies, this has resulted in a RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations.

The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles which can damage cells in the lung tissue. The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from leukemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon, along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden.

Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 murder by radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out with polonium-210, an alpha emitter.

See also

• Alpha particle
• Beta decay

Alpha Particles are known for their low penetrating ability and therefore are not considered very dangerous as the radiation only travels a few centimetres in air.

References

• Alpha emitters by increasing energy (Appendix 1)

External links

• The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA with filter on alpha decay, in Java or HTML

Category:Nuclear physics Category:Radioactivity

In baseball, a ground rule double is an award of two bases from the time of pitch to all base runners including the batter-runner as a result of the ball leaving play after being hit fairly and leaving the field under a condition of the ground rules in effect at the field where the game is being played. For example, at Fenway Park in Boston, "A ball going through scoreboard, either on the bound or fly, is two bases." At Tampa Bay's Tropicana Field, a "Batted ball that is not judged a home run and remains on a catwalk, light or suspended object: TWO BASES".

The term is often mistakenly used in two other situations where base runners are placed by the umpires after the play. An automatic double is the correct term used to refer to a fairly hit ball leaving the field in circumstances that do not merit a home run as described in Major League Baseball (MLB) rules 6.09(e) through 6.09(h). These circumstances are common to all playing fields. The most common example is a batted ball that lands in fair territory and bounces into the stands in either fair or foul territory. Another example is a fair fly ball deflected (without touching the ground) out of play by a fielder. Normally a home-run, if this occurs within 250 feet of home plate it is considered an automatic double. This applied in an unusual play August 3, 2007 when Melky Cabrera of the New York Yankees hit a ball that ricocheted off Kansas City Royals pitcher Ryan Braun's foot and bounced into the stands in foul territory.[1]

When two bases are awarded by either ground rule or league-wide rule, any baserunners ahead of the batter are entitled to advance two bases from their positions at the time of pitch but may not advance any further. This sometimes denies a team a run since a speedy runner starting from first base must stop at third base. It can also be an advantage as a slow runner on second base automatically scores on a ground rule double.

Previously, all batted balls that cleared the fence after a bounce in fair territory or on a fly were counted equally as home runs. The rule was changed by the American League prior to the 1930 season and was subsequently adopted by the National League on December 12, 1930.

Another situation where the term ground-rule double is misapplied is spectator interference, when a spectator interferes with the ball in the field of play. In this case, play is stopped, and the umpires judge what the outcome of the play would have been, if the interference had not taken place. This includes placing base runners. For example, in a game June 22, 2013, between the Tampa Bay Rays and the New York Yankees in Hew York, V. Wells, pinch-hitting in the bottom of the seventh inning with the bases loaded, hit a deep fly ball. The ball landed in the outfield, bounced up towards the stands, was touched by a spectator reaching into the field of play, and landed back on the field. The umpires judged that the ball would not have reached the stands even without the interference, allowed the three existing base runners to score and placed Wells on second base.

===================================================================================================

Previously, all batted balls that cleared the fence after a bounce in fair territory or on a fly were counted as home runs. The rule was changed by the American League prior to the 1930 season and was subsequently adopted by the National League on December 12, 1930.

References[edit]

^ Wang wins 13th as A-Rod stays put - MLB.com External links[edit]

Major League Baseball Ground Rules Major League Baseball Rule 3 Major League Baseball Rule 6 Major League Baseball Rule 7 Ballpark quirks at their best