User:P Aculeius/sandbox/Roman names

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General

Romans and other Italic peoples, as well as the Etruscans, shared a system of nomenclature that differed from the typical Indo-European naming system. OCD2.

The origin of this system and why it differs predates the earliest records. OCD2.

De Praenominibus, a fragment that Julius Paris in the fourth century attributed to Valerius Maximus, contains the statement Varro simplicia in Italia nomina fuisse ait. Simple names such as "Romulus" and "Remus" in the Roman foundation myths are consistent with this, but other names in these myths, such as "Numitor Silvius" and "Rhea Silvia" are not. Harper's.

The system developed together with the Roman state. Harper's.

Men, and in theory women, had two or more names. OCD2.

Names were simple and seldom honorific. OCD2.

The basic names were the praenomen, or personal name, and the nomen, or name of the gens. Some Romans and other Italians also had at least one additional name, or cognomen. These were the tria nomina that came to be regarded as characteristic of Roman citizens. OCD2.

The [filiation] was probably the first element added to simple names: such names initially indicated potestas, manus, mancipium, using the genitive case, i.e. "Marcus Marci", "Caecilia Crassi", to which other words were later added—filius, filia, uxor, servus. The nomen will have followed from this [see OCD2 below]. Harper's.

Praenomina

The praenomen might originally have been used alone, like typical Indo-European names. Some of these contain honorific or divine elements; others refer to physical traits or circumstances of birth. OCD2.

Originally, in small communities, the personal name was important. Other names became more important as communities grew. Harper's.

There were probably many praenomina in use before the adoption of nomina and perhaps other factors reduced the number. Including Etruscan praenomina, less than a hundred are known. OCD2.

The Roman aristocracy used about fifteen (OCD2) or eighteen (Harper's) praenomina, with some gentes only using a few (see below). They were usually abbreviated, except where they occur alone. OCD2.

Eighteen praenomina were used by patrician families, with these abbreviations: Aulus (A.), Decimus (D.), Gaius (C.), Gnaeus (Cn.), Kaeso (K.), Lucius (L.), Manius (M'.), Marcus (M.), Publius (P.), Quintus (Q.), Servius (Ser.), Sextus (Sex.), Spurius (S.), Tiberius (Ti.), Titus (T.), Appius (Ap.), Mamercus (Mam.), and Numerius (N.). Harper's.

The Cornelii used Aulus, Gnaeus, Lucius, Marcus, Publius, Servius, and Tiberius, but the Cornelii Scipiones just Gnaeus, Lucius, and Publius. Harper's.

Other praenomina fell into disuse at an early time, but are known from Roman writings and the fasti. Some were of foreign and rare occurrence. De Praenominibus lists fourteen ancient praenomina no longer in use: Agrippa, Ancus, Caesar, Faustus, Hostus, Lar, Opiter, Postumus, Proculus, Sertor, Statius, Tullus, Volero, and Vopiscus. Harper's.

Although many women's praenomina are known, some corresponding to men's praenomina, they were gradually abandoned in favour of the nomen, particularly by the Roman aristocracy. OCD2.

Etruscan women were perhaps the most likely to continue using praenomina. OCD2.

The praenomen was given by a child's parents on the dies lustricius, the ninth day after birth for boys, and the eighth for girls. Harper's.

In De Praenominibus, Quintus Scaevola says that boys did not receive praenomina until they assumed the toga virilis, or girls before their marriage, but at best this can only refer to a formal conferring of the name, since the praenomina of children are often found in inscriptions. Harper's.

In Cisalpine Gaul, cognomina were sometimes employed as praenomina, e.g. Maximus, Rufus. Harper's.

Nomina

The nomen was regarded as the most important name, which is why it was called simply the "nomen". OCD2.

Nomina were usually formed by adding an adjectival suffix, such as -ius, to the stem of an existing name, sometimes with a connecting element such as -e-, -id-, -il-, or -on-. OCD2, Harper's.

Besides -ius, -aius, -eius, -eus, and -aeus are typical of Roman nomina. Harper's.

Nomina ending in -a, -as, -anus, and -enus are typical of "the north". OCD2.

Nomina ending in -arna, erna, -enna, -ina, and -inna indicate Etruscan origin. Harper's.

Nomina ending in -as, -anas, -enas, and -inas indicate Umbrian origin. Harper's.

Many nomina were patronymics formed from praenomina, as in "Marcius" from "Marci (filius)". OCD2.

Other nomina were formed from cognomina, as "Plancius" or place names, as "Norbanus" and "Acerranus". OCD2, Harper's.

Oddities such as "Verres", evidently of Roman origin, may have been derived from cognomina. Harper's.

The number of nomina known is very large. OCD2.

Nomina were normally inherited from one's father. Women did not assume their husbands' nomina in historical times. OCD2.

All members of a family [patrilineal descendants] shared the same nomen, and nomina were originally associated with the places where they originated. Harper's.

Cognomina

Cognomina were usually extra personal names. OCD2. Harper's.

These came into use to further distinguish individuals, and were the last part of the Roman nomenclature to develop, probably after the time of Servius Tullius, since it follows rather than precedes the tribe in the full Roman nomenclature. Harper's.

Although the use of cognomina may date from the later seventh century BC, they do not seem to have been written down regularly before the fifth century BC.

Cognomina could denote physical features (Naso), mental characteristics (Cato), occupations (Pictor), offices (Censorinus), associated items (Scipio), places of origin (Camerinus), or adoption. OCD2.

Some cognomina are diminutives (Marcellus) or foreign (Philippus). OCD2.

Sometimes cognomina became hereditary, especially in large gentes, and could indicate divisions (e.g. the Cornelii Cethegi, Lentuli, and Scipiones) or subdivisions (e.g. the Scipiones Nasicae) of a gens. OCD2. Harper's.

In Republican times, Cognomina could also serve as indications of nobility, as they were used by the patrician gentes and some of the plebeians. Harper's.

Some plebeian gentes, including large and important ones, were never divided into distinct branches with their own cognomina. OCD2.

From the late Republic, cognomina came to be used by all [most] free-born citizens and often by Freedmen. Possessing a cognomen indicated that someone was free. Harper's.

Personal cognomina continued to be created throughout Roman history. OCD2.

Late grammarians distinguished (some?) personal cognomina as agnomina. OCD2. Harper's.

Agnomina included the cognomen ex virtute (Caudinus, Hispanus) and names derived from adoption (Aemilianus). Harper's.

Under the Republic, cognomina were not coined for women, but some women were known by their family cognomina (Caecilia Metella). In Imperial times women frequently had cognomina (Furia Sabinia Tranquillia). OCD2, Harper's.

Use

Informally Roman men were addressed or referred to by one name—praenomen by family (including clients), nomen or cognomen among friends. OCD2, Harper's.

Formal use required praenomen with nomen or cognomen. Senators asked for their opinion were so addressed. OCD2.

In inscriptions, the tria nomina were usually given in the order, "praenomen, nomen, cognomen" except for metrical reasons, Greek influence, or rustic usage. In literary sources this order is followed when the praenomen is given (as in Livy), but in older literature if the praenomen is not given, the order is "cognomen, nomen", followed by Cicero; later writing, such as that of Caesar, uses "nomen, cognomen". Harper's.

In the most formal contexts a full nomenclature included elements giving someone's descent (filiation) and tribe. Women could use filiations. OCD2. Harper's.

The filiation could include "filius", "nepos", "pronepos", "abnepos", and "adnepos". Harper's.

In most of Italy, the indication of manus or authority [the filiation] preceded the family name [nomen], but the Romans reversed this order. Harper's.

In the early period, women's names consisted of praenomen and nomen, followed by the father or husband's praenomen in the genitive (Maior Anicia C. f.). Later the praenomen disappeared, and the nomen was used alone, accompanied by the father or husband's name if necessary (Aelia C. f., Curtia Rosci [uxor]). Harper's.

Adoption

Adopted sons used the full names of their adoptive father, but might add derivative cognomina indicating their original nomina, or occasionally cognomina, to which was suffixed -anus or -inus. From the first century BC, the original cognomen might be added unaltered. OCD2.

Slaves, freedmen, and new citizens

Originally slaves were called by their own names, or given names based on their origin. OCD2.

Names such as "Marcipor", standing for "Marci puer" were ancient but fell out of use as households became larger. OCD2, Harper's.

Inscriptions of the late Republic typically show non-Roman names followed by the owner's nomen and praenomen in the genitive, and "seruus", i.e. Aphrodisius Ploti C. s., Helenus Hosti Q. s. OCD2, Harper's.

In Imperial times, the owner's full name was given, e.g. Martialis C. Oli Primi s. Harper's.

In the case of slaves sold to new masters, the former master's cognomen could be added in a derivative form, e.g. Epitynchanus Caesaris nostri servus Candidianus. Harper's.

Originally, freedmen took the nomina of their patron, but might choose their praenomina, often using their former servile names, as in the inscription "C. Sextius V. s." Harper's.

By the first century BC, freedmen and new citizens often took their patron's praenomen as well as his nomen, adding their original name as a cognomen. OCD2, Harper's.

Freedmen used 'l' or 'lib.' for 'libertus' in place of a filiation, e.g. P. Helvidius P. l. Hermes. "Augusti libertus" or "Caesaris nostri libertus" was used by freedmen of the emperor. Harper's.

The freedmen of women would assume the praenomina of their mistresses' fathers. Harper's.

Freedmen of a colonia or municipium would form nomina from "publicus", as they had been servi publici, or would form nomina from the name of the town. Harper's.

Later developments

Various modifications of the basic system began in the late Republic. OCD2.

The aristocracy sometimes revived old praenomina (Faustus) and used cognomina as praenomina (Germanicus, Drusus, Cossus). OCD2. Harper's.

The emperor assumed "Imperator" as a praenomen. OCD2. Harper's.

Men were frequently addressed by nomen and cognomen, sometimes in reversed order. OCD2.

The number of names used by an individual could become very large. From the early empire to the third century it was common to use multiple cognomina. OCD2. Harper's.

After the middle of the second century, nomia came to be used as praenomina (Aelius, Aurelius), and were sometimes abbreviated. Harper's.

"Signa", or alternative names, came to be used. OCD2.

Eventually the traditional Roman nomenclature system was abandoned in favour of single names. OCD2.

Sources

Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Edition, "Names, Personal."
Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, "Nomen".
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Nomen". [Outdated, IMO; probably should not cite, as much of the content seems to be confused by early names, Etruscan names, etc., which were not as well studied at the time this article was written.]