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The galley corps (French: corps des galeres) was a branch of the military of early modern France that was established in 1665. It existed as an independent organization until it was merged with the French navy in 1748.

FOR SORTING

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  • Canal du Midi built by 1667-1681 to allow transfer of ships from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic via the Garonne river, though by the time it was finished, sailing warships had begun to show their marked superiority to galleys[1]


  • transition during 16th century from free oarsmen to galley slaves or convicts chained to their benches that did not participate in fighting (Glete 1993, p. 146)
  • French galley forces in the Mediterranean in the 16th and early 17th centuries were often organized by entrepreneurs (condottieri) that were paid fixed annual sums by the state (Glete 1993, pp. 140-141)
  • France developed considerable galley fleets from the 1490s to c. 1560 mainly to counter Habsburg Spain (up to 50 French galleys by 1550); all but wiped out during the civil wars from 1562-1598; re-established in 1600; grew to 35 vessels in 1640 following outbreak of war with Spain in 1635 (Glete 1993, pp. 144-145); between 15 and 35 active vessels until 1665 (Glete 1993, pp. 514)
  • French campaigns against North African corsairs part of a "crusade against the infidel" (Bamford 1973, p. 19)
  • Richelieu used the corps against Spain with clashes off Genoa in 1638 (over 6,000 men killed on both sides) and Tarragona in 1641 (Bamford 1973, 19-21)


  • 15 in the Atlantic in 1690; 6 in the Atlantic 1695-1710 (Glete 1993, p. 515)
  • decline to 30 in 1701, 26 in 1716 and 15 in 1718 (Bamford 1973, p. 273)
  • number of hulls likely larger than the active strength (Glete 1993, p. 515)
  • strength of galley fleets were not mainly dependent on the existing number of physical hulls; galleys were much smaller and less complex than sailing ships and could be replaced quickly and easily; relevant measure of strength was in the number of galleys that could be fully manned with officers, crew, soldiers and rowers; figures usually referred to size of the active fleet (Glete 1993, p. 503)

Background

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The galley docks at Marseilles in illustration from a 1584 edition of the atlas Civitates Orbis Terrarum

Galleys had been synonymous with warships in the Mediterranean for at least 2,000 years, but were eventually outclassed by broadside-armed sailing warships and gradually displaced over from the late 16th century onwards. Galleys still remained a more "mature" technology for some time. They had long-established tactics and traditions of supporting social institutions and naval organizations that remained in place beyond their effectiveness as fighting ships.[3] Galleys and similar oared vessels remained uncontested as the most effective gun-armed warships in theory until the 1560s, and in practice for a few decades more, and were actually considered a grave risk to sailing warships.[4]

Galleys could effectively fight other galleys, attack sailing ships in calm weather or in unfavorable winds (or deny them action if needed) and act as floating siege batteries. They were also unequaled in their amphibious capabilities, even at extended ranges, as exemplified by French interventions as far north as Scotland in the mid-16th century.[5] In situations where sailing warships and galleys faced each other, galleys had the initiative due to their maneuverability and independence of prevailing winds. Throughout the 16th and 17th century there were virtually no situations where sailing ships could destroy or capture galleys that were not determined to fight.[6] Galleys also remained closely associated with land warfare, and the prestige associated with it. British naval historian Nicholas Rodger has described this as display of "the supreme symbol of royal power [...] derived from its intimate association with armies, and consequently with princes".[7] As galleys began to lose their usefulness in northern waters, rivalry and a conscious distinction between oared and sailing navies became more common. In France, the administrative language of the early 17th century made a strict distinction between the galères ("galleys") and the marine ("navy") with the former referring exclusively to sailing ships. This separation did not disappear completely until the 1650s when modern state navies began to emerge.[8]

History

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The French galley corps was one of the two major galley fleets in 17th century Europe, the other belonging to France's major rival of Habsburg Spain. France had become the most powerful state in Europe in the 1650s, and expanded its galley forces under Louis XIVThe French galley corps became a separate organisation, independent of the French navy, under Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance under French "Sun King" Louis XIV.[9] Under Louis XIV, the galley corps was also transformed from a form "mercenary business" run by powerful aristocrats into a state-controlled enterprise.[10]

  • French galley corps used to interrupt Spanish lines of communication between Iberian Peninsula and Italian holdings; French galley buildings ceased for almost 20 years when France was under Bourbon control; used as amphibious force (Glete 1993, p. 251)
  • corps used to fight North African Muslim corsairs (pirates/privateers); need declined during 17th century when Ottoman power gradually decreased at expense of Christian European powers (Glete 1993, pp. 251-252)
  • "true conservatism" of officers of the galley corps lay in the resistance to innovations in oared vessels (galleys had obvious uses); North African corsairs employed larger variety of vessels (smaller, sailing ships and hybrids; hardly any large galleys)

In the 1690s, the French galley corps reached its peak strength with more than 50 galleys manned by over 15,000 men and officers, becoming the largest galley fleet in the world at the time.[11] Though there was intense rivalry between France and Spain, no galley battles was fought between the two great powers at this time, and almost no battles between other nations either.[12] During the War of the Spanish Succession, French galleys were involved in actions as far north as Antwerp and Harwich,[13] but due to the intricacies of alliance politics there were never any Franco-Spanish galley clashes. In the first half of the 18th century, the other major naval powers in North Africa, the Order of Saint John and the Papal States downsized their galley forces.[14]

Strength of Mediterranean galley fleets (by number of vessels) [15]
State 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 1700 1715 1720
Republic of Venice 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40
Ottoman Empire 70-100 80-100 60 50 30 30 30 30
France 36 15 25 29 37 36 26 15
Spain (including Italian holdings) 30-40 30-40 30 30 30 30 7 7
Papal states 5 5 5 5 5 4 6 6
Malta 6 7 7 7 8 8 5 5
Genoa 10 10 10 10 10 6 6 6
Tuscany 5 3 4 4 4 3 3 2-3
Savoy 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5
Austria - - - - - - 4 4
Total (approximate) 220-270 200-240 200 200 175 170 140 120

Despite the lack of action, the French Galley Corps received considerable resources during the last decades of the 17th century (around 20-25% of the total French fleet expenditures) and was maintained as a functional fighting force right up until it was abolished in 1748. Its primary function became to symbolize the prestige of Louis XIV's hardline absolutist ambitions by patrolling the Mediterranean to force ships of other states to salute the King's banner, convoying ambassadors and cardinals, and participating in naval parades and royal pageantry.[16]

 
Title page of the printed version of the royal decree to merge the galley corps with the navy dated 27 September 174

After the death of one of its most powerful defenders, Jean Philippe d'Orléans General of the Galleys from 1708, the corps was merged into French navy in 1748. For patrols against pirates in the Mediterranean, galleys were replaced with xebecs, a sailing ship hybrid, with the final galleys stricken from official lists in the early 1770s.[17]

Institutional role

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Besides a military force, the galley corps served several purposes of the French elite. It was employed as "tool of royal authority" by Louis XIV to project absolutist ambitions and ideals. The officers of the galley corps was the prerogative of the Knights of Saint John (better known as the Knights Hospitaller) who saw it as an extension of the crusades to fight Muslim "infidels". As "crusaders", the Knights effectively had a double allegiance to the Papacy, but the this religious mission also meant that the French king enjoyed favor with the Pope.[18] The galley corps was fiercely defended against cutbacks by its conservative aristocratic officers, for whom it provided a stable existence and a comfortable livelihood. Another reason that the Corps was maintained was its usefulness as a penal institution and for suppressing and persecuting the French Protestant minority. Being a largely Catholic nation with a devotedly Catholic ruler, late 17th century France developed the method of sending both ordinary criminals and religious dissenters to serve as convicts, effectively making them galley slaves.[19]

The galley corps also served as a prison system for convicts, and as a feared punishment for religious and political dissenters. French Protestants were particularly ill-treated when sentenced to the galleys, making them an infamous penal institution, though the Protestant condemned to galley service were never more than a small minority.[20]

  • relatively lenient sentence compared to contemporary harsh bodily punishment and prisons that forced captors to pay for everything (while galley oarsmen were fed and under strict, but reasonable regulations)[21]

The French royal galleys in particular became one of the most detested aspects of the French monarchy during the 18th century. There were worse examples of convict labor and imprisonment, but it became associated with the relatively small number of persecuted Protestants who were sent to the galleys.[22] In 1909, French author Albert Savine (1859-1927) wrote that "[a]fter the Bastille, the galleys were the greatest horror of the old regime".[23] Long after convicts stopped serving in the galleys, even after the reign of Napoleon ended, the term galérien ("galley rower") became a general term for forced labor and convicts serving harsh sentences.[24]

  • galleys associated with slavery, cruelty, "arbitrary authority", though the most cruelly treated Protestants were only a "notorious minority"[25]

Protestants were often particularly poorly treated and died an early death or were forced to convert. The institution would become an infamous and hated symbol of the inhumanity of old French monarchy, especially in Protestant states.[19]

French galleys defended by conservative "friends" despite being criticized as expensive, inefficient and burdened by the reputation as being a tool of the authority to force religious obedience as well as an excuse for keeping slaves.[26]

Vessels and equipment

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Stern of the a model of the Réale, the flagship galley of the corps built in 1694.

The typical war galley of the corps had a displacement of perhaps 300 tons with 25 pairs of rower benches with 5 rowers each for a total of 250 rowers.[27] Flagship galleys could be up to 450 tons in displacement and with 30 pairs of benches with seven rowers per oar for a total of 420 oarsmen. These larger flagships were referred to as réales for fleet for fleet or squadron flagships or patronnes for second-in-command officers. While much larger, the proportion of the flagships were the same.[28] The larger flagships were far more expensive, not just because of larger size but due to their lavish decorations. A réale was often painted white and had three lanterns in the stern while the normal galleys were painted red with just two lanterns. The réale was decorated with fine sculptures by famous artisans like Pierre Puget. A capitane (similar to a patronne) constructed during 1688 had inlaid wood in the captain's quarters with the exterior of the poop deck painted and gilded. The réale built in 1676 was decorated with red velvet, embroidered cloth and gold brocades. The cloth alone on this réale was 109,000 livres not counting the cost of "lesser supplies and workmanship". This was the equivalent of the annual wages of several hundred skilled laborers. For comparison, the cost of constructing a regular galley was about 28,000 livres.[29] The main armament was a single heavy 24-pounder cannon in the bow (sometimes even heavier guns) flanked by two to four lighter guns, usually 6- or 12-pounders. Along the sides between the oars there were often light anti-personnel swivel guns for boarding actions. This armament layout was overall identical for most galleys except for the weight of guns.[30] Swivel guns were used earlier in the reign of Louis XIV but were gradually eliminated since they were seldom used.[31] In the late 1670s, regulations for galley dimensions were introduced to the galley corps by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the Chief minister of France 1661-1683. Standard war galleys were about 185 ft long, 22 feet wide at the waterline. They had 26 oars per side with five men per oar. The oars for ordinary galleys were 38 ft, and for larger galleys 45 ft.[32]

  • decline after 1715, and in consequence better timber[33]
  • crash program of galley construction 1662-90, from half a dozen to over 40;[34] extensive use of green, unseasoned, timber shortened service life of galleys considerably; late 17th century French galleys was no more than ten years, on average 4,5 in 1978; [35] 18th century galleys averaged over 14 years of service[36]
  • galleys were made more expensive the higher they were ranked (71-72); Patronne middle-large ranked ship; up to 50% more rowers in a réale, r painted white while (with three lanterns) normal French galleys were red (and had only two lanterns) (71) Pierre Puget was the most famous of galley ornamentors and it was was decorated with 109,000 livres for just cloth while a normal galley cost altogether 28,000[37]
  • for prestige purposes a galley was according to a report once built, with pre-cut timbers and 500 carpenters working in teams on one side each, caulked, tested and floated in 24 hours to impress the King[38]
  • two galley-convicted Protestants were released in 1775 after serving for 30 years each, at the ages of 58 and 72[39]

Personnel

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Galleys required large amounts of people to propel them with oars. A large war galley, 170 feet long and 40-45 feet wide (c. 55 by 14 m), had a total crew of up to 500 men.[40] Rowing required strength and coordination with was done through oral commands, drums and physical abuse. Exercises were done frequently, even in winter, outside the regular sailing season. Accidents at the oars could lead to injuries or even death. Mortality overall was high and few survived as oarsmen for more than a few years, even if there were exceptional cases of those who held out for 20-30 years or more.[41]

Conditions aboard early modern galleys were often described as filthy due to heavy over-crowding. In the French galley corps it was even believed that the squalor contributed to the speedy decay of ships' timbers.[42] The great stench of galleys was even reputed to be origin for use of perfume by aristocractic French galley officers.[43] The crowding of galleys was only rivaled by the ships that transported slaves across the Atlantic Ocean.[44] Rations of rowers consisted of about 2 lbs of bread or ship biscuits (hardtack), bean soup, oil or lard and some wine.[45] There was also the practice of compulsory wine purchases during the 17th century with "taverns" on board run by committees of the non-commissioned officers (NCOs) responsible for the rowers. This made up part of the income of the NCOs and was a tradition was went back to the Middle Ages.[46]

  • in 1716, Galères du Roi required 6,000 oarsmen[47]
  • great stench of galleys reputed to be origin for use of perfume by upper-class officers [48]
  • 3000 oarsmen required just for the Squadron of Spain under Philip IV; despised as convicts and forzados or Muslim galley slaves (their percentage increased until the 1610s) were driven hard, but were still considered valuable and measures were taken to not allow them to die; lesser crimes were penalized with galley duty to fill gaps; gypsies condemned to row; French POWs employed; sentences prolonged (illegally) to avoid loss of manpower; gypsies also used in French galley force[49]
  • "Turks" in high demand as oarsmen; Louis XIV attempted to loan 12 galleys (with oarsmen) from the Ahmed II[50]
  • bonnevoglie, paid free oarsmen were hired from the lowest classes, but usually preferred to sign on as sailors[51]


  • galleys could "pay" for themselves by hiring out (forced) rowers as laborers out of the patrolling season; very timber efficient in a Mediterranean context of scarcity; required little (very expensive) ordnance in comparison with sailing ships[52]


The officers of the corps were almost all noblemen and many were Knights of Malta, a military order with traditions of crusading against Muslim going back to the 1290s. Serving on the galleys was in many ways more attractive than on sailing ships because of the focus on hand-to-hand combat and the chance at personally military distinction. (95-96) The galley corps paid better than the sailing navy, the campaigns limited to the summers, voyages were short, and campaigns were organized every year (unlike the sailing navy which might lie in reserve for years on end). (96)

During the expansion of the corps under Colbert in the 1660s and 1670s, recruiting French-born Knights of Malta as officers was given high priority despite opposition from the Grand Masters of the order. (98-99)

The Knights formed "the backbone of the Corps" with around 50% of commands held by Knights in the 1670s, but falling off somewhat in the 1690s. (101).

Images

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Notes

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  1. ^ Jean Mathiex (1970) "The Mediterranean" in Bromley, John Selvin (editor) (1970) The New Cambridge Modern History: The rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688-1725 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-07524-6 p. 564[1]
  2. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 89
  3. ^ Glete (2003), p. 27
  4. ^ The British naval historian Nicholas Rodger describes this as a "crisis in naval warfare" which eventually led to the development of the galleon, which combined ahead-firing capabilities, heavy broadside guns and a considerable increase in maneuverability by introduction of more advanced sailing rigs; Rodger (2003), p. 245. For more detailed arguments concerning the development of broadside armament, see Rodger (1996).
  5. ^ Glete (1993), p. 515
  6. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 16
  7. ^ Rodger (2003), p. 237
  8. ^ Hattendorf (2003), p. 20
  9. ^ Reynolds, Clark G. (1998) Navies in History. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland. ISBN 978-1557507150; p. 59
  10. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 68-69
  11. ^ Bamford (1974), p. 52
  12. ^ Bamford (1974), p. 45
  13. ^ Lehmann (1984) p. 12
  14. ^ Bamford (1974), pp. 272-73
  15. ^ Figures from Glete (1993), p. 251 and focus on standard war galleys and larger flagship galleys, but excludes galeasses. Venetian and Ottoman figures are approximates. Figures for France, Malta, the Papal States, Tuscany are more precise, but are less exact for some periods.
  16. ^ Bamford (1974), pp. 23-25, 277-78
  17. ^ Glete (1993), p. 515
  18. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 4
  19. ^ a b Bamford (1974), pp. 275-78
  20. ^ Bamford (1974), pp. 275-278
  21. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 26-28
  22. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 11-12
  23. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 105
  24. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 282
  25. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 10–12
  26. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 275-80
  27. ^ Glete (1993), p. 250
  28. ^ Glete (1993), p. 502
  29. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 71-72
  30. ^ Glete (1993), p. 504
  31. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 71
  32. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 70
  33. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 86
  34. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 78
  35. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 79-80
  36. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 84
  37. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 72
  38. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 67-77
  39. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 288
  40. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 208
  41. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 220-224
  42. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 83-84
  43. ^ Rodgers (1939), pp. 235-36
  44. ^ Eltis, David (2000) Europeans and the rise of African slavery in the Americas. Cambridge University Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-5216-52-31-5 p. 78[2]
  45. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 203
  46. ^ Bamford (1973), p. 207
  47. ^ Jean Mathiex (1970) "The Mediterranean" in Bromley, John Selvin (editor) (1970) The New Cambridge Modern History: The rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688-1725 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-07524-6 p. 563[3]
  48. ^ Rodgers (1939), pp. 235-36
  49. ^ Goodman (1997), pp. 215-20
  50. ^ Jean Mathiex (1970) "The Mediterranean" in Bromley, John Selvin (editor) (1970) The New Cambridge Modern History: The rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688-1725 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-07524-6 p. 563[4]
  51. ^ Jean Mathiex (1970) "The Mediterranean" in Bromley, John Selvin (editor) (1970) The New Cambridge Modern History: The rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688-1725 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-07524-6 p. 563[5]
  52. ^ Bamford (1973), pp. 13–15

References

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  • Bamford, Paul W., Fighting ships and prisons: the Mediterranean Galleys of France in the Age of Louis XIV. Cambridge University Press, London. 1974. ISBN 0-8166-0655-2
  • Glete, Jan, Navies and nations: Warships, navies and state building in Europe and America, 1500-1860. Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm. 1993. ISBN 91-22-01565-5
  • Goodman, David, Spanish naval power 1589-1665: reconstruction and defeat. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1997. ISBN 0-521-58063-3
  • Hattendorf, John B. & Unger, Richard W. (editors), War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Woodbridge, Suffolk. 2003. ISBN 0-85115-903-6 [6] pp. 1–22
    • Glete, Jan, "Naval Power and Control of the Sea in the Baltic in the Sixteenth Century", pp. 215–32
    • Hattendorf, John B., "Theories of Naval Power: A. T. Mahan and the Naval History of Medieval and Renaissance Europe", pp. 1–22
    • Rodger, Nicholas A. M., "The New Atlantic: Naval Warfare in the Sixteenth Century", pp. 231–47
  • Lehmann, L. Th., Galleys in the Netherlands. Meulenhoff, Amsterdam. 1984. ISBN 90-290-1854-2

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