Urban forest inequity, sometimes called shade inequity or tree canopy inequity,[1] is the inequitable distribution of trees, with their associated benefits, across metropolitan areas.[2] This phenomenon has a number of follow-on effects, including but not limited to measurable impacts on faunal biodiversity and the urban heat island effect.[3][4] Urban heat inequity occurs when intra-urban heat islands, with their associated negative physical and emotional health consequences, are more common and more intense in lower-income communities.[5][6]
Potential solutions to urban forest inequity include but are not limited to investment in marginalized communities, tree-planting initiatives, and more.[7] Examples of urban forest inequity can be seen in various cities across the world.[8][9][10][1][11]
Definitions
editUrban Forests
editUrban forests are areas of land covered by trees or other vegetation located in and around places of intensive human influence, particularly metropolitan, urban areas such as cities.[12] Urban forests can be located both on public and private land, but particular importance is typically given to public land. This is because the vast majority of urban forests (especially street trees) are located on public land, which was noted by researcher Steven Strom.[12] Urban forests are thought to help mitigate the impacts of climate change,[7] and they are important in maintaining the biodiversity of an urban area, particularly the avifauna (birds) of the area.[13]
Urban Forest Inequity
editUrban forest inequity is a phenomenon in which the distribution of and access to trees and nature is inequitable in urban areas.[7] It is thought to be an example of environmental injustice.[14] Numerous studies, including a 2017 meta-analysis done by researchers Ed Gerrish and Shannon Lea Watkins, have found a positive relationship between income and urban forest coverage.[7] Inequitable distribution of greenery in urban areas may restrict an equal distribution of the benefits of urban forests, which include reducing stress and anxiety, cultivating a safe community, emotional fulfillment, mitigating the effects of global warming, and more.[14] Various historical, cultural, and institutional factors contribute to the perceived inequities in urban forestry management and inequitable distribution of urban greenery.[14] A 2022 paper published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health found that vulnerable residents of an urban area, particularly lower-income residents and those who live further from urban forests and green space, are particularly susceptible to the urban heat island effect.[9] There are examples of urban forest inequity in cities globally, some of which are listed below.
Associated Problems
editEnvironmental justice and spatial justice are two ideologies associated with the problems presented by urban forest inequity, and these ideologies seek to understand the disproportionate quality of life due to uneven environmental or spatial conditions and benefits.[1][14][8][11] Problems commonly associated with urban forest inequity include but are not limited to the urban heat island effect, public health concerns, and the inequitable distribution of environmental benefits.[5] In a 2022 paper, socio-spatial inequalities specialist Bernard Bret and geographer Sophie Moreau described environmental justice and spatial justice as two concepts defined by an interconnectedness between geographical space and quality of life.[15] The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has found that inequities are most often visible along the lines of “income, race, color, or national origin.”[16] South Africa historically has treated minority populations unequally, particularly by means of racial segregation, perhaps most clearly evident in the South African apartheid that occurred for the greater part of the twentieth century.[17] Researchers in South Africa in a 2018 report found correlations between an increased risk of cancer and chemical poisoning, as well as of respiratory diseases like asthma, are of a much greater likelihood in marginalized communities that are negatively affected by environmental and spatial injustice, because individuals there may be more often be at risk of exposure to dangerous pollutants in water or in the air.[18]
The U.S. E.P.A. defines the urban heat island effect as a phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas.[19] Air temperature inside urban areas can be about 1–3°C or 1–7°F higher than rural or surrounding air temperatures, on average.[4] This is due to a variety of reasons, which include but are not limited to lower albedo on urban surfaces, anthropogenic heat released from buildings and vehicles, and reduced areas of evapotranspiration.[4] Asphalt and concrete, surfaces that are more common in urban areas, have a higher albedo than surfaces such as trees, grass, or snow. In addition, evapotranspiration is a powerful cooling process,[20] and the relatively reduced amount of greenery in urban areas compared to rural areas contributes to the urban heat island effect. Without urban forests, the cooling mechanisms of high albedo and evapotranspiration do not work to cool the geographic area. Additionally, the E.P.A. has found that lower-income communities and those of color are particularly susceptible to the phenomenon known as intra-urban heat islands, which is due, in part, to historical redlining.[5] Because urban forests help combat urban heat islands and intra-urban heat islands, redlining contributes to this instance of environmental injustice.
Potential Solutions
editEfforts to address to urban forest inequity must effectively combat both environmental and spatial injustice in addition to urban heat islands. Some argue this may include activists and policymakers engaging directly with marginalized communities,[21] public investment in underserved neighborhoods, and tighter government restrictions regarding land use and pollution concerns.[22] A 2023 article published in the National League of Cities offered several potential solutions to combat urban heat islands, which included but are not limited to: increasing green space by planting trees along streets or sidewalks, converting existing roof spaces to green roofs, replacing normal pavement with sustainable alternatives, subsidies for planting trees, and active engagement of low-income communities, among others.[7] [23]
Examples
editSome cities have historically faced problems concerning urban forest inequity. They may have a disproportionate amount of green space in higher-income communities or face criticism from those who advocate for environmental justice. Beijing, China is one of those examples, demonstrated by the lack of accessibility to green spaces compared to gated communities. Research was published in the journal Environment and Planning B: Urban and City Analytics with data from the Beijing Green Spaces System Planning which found that higher-income gated communities had more access to green spaces than lower-income residential communities and that the urban planning was not meeting the demand for public parks and playgrounds in the densely populated regions of the city.[8]
New York City is another example of a city that has historically faced challenges with urban forest inequity. Because of the urban heat island effect, concrete in the city draws more heat and raises temperatures, so more shade coverage is needed to protect inhabitants. A 2023 editorial written for the New York Daily News found that many neighborhoods in the city lack shade protection and may subsequently face temperatures “20 to 45 degrees hotter than those with more shade,” and these are typically lower-income communities.[24] Moreover, researchers have often cited Chicago as another U.S. city facing difficulties in mitigating urban forest inequity. The city is actively trying to combat the lack of greenery and pollution they are facing through planting trees across different neighborhoods.[10]
In 2021, a paper published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health worked to identify which regions in Delhi, India were experiencing high levels of urban heat, and consequently if they had sufficient green space or areas with urban forestry of some kind.[9] According to the researchers, the results “documented how the spatial distribution of heat and greenspace relates to the spatial distribution of social vulnerability at the ward level in Delhi.”[9] Rafael Fernandez-Alvarez of Arizona State University conducted similar research on Mexico City, Mexico pertaining to the distribution of green public spaces for inhabitants. The researchers found that these spaces are often biased against marginalized populations. The evidence showed that they mostly exist in the wealthy areas of the capital city, while the more populated lower-income communities lacked green public spaces.[11]
See Also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b c Wolfsdorf, Isabella (2022-01-01). "Shade Equity in Louisville, KY: Considering Environmental Justice in an Analysis of Urban Tree Canopy Inequality and Demographics". Environmental Studies Electronic Thesis Collection.
- ^ Aznarez, Celina; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Pacheco, Juan Pablo; Have Kallesøe, Frederik; Baró, Francesc; Pascual, Unai (2023-08-16). "Luxury and legacy effects on urban biodiversity, vegetation cover and ecosystem services". npj Urban Sustainability. 3 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1038/s42949-023-00128-7. ISSN 2661-8001.
- ^ Wood, Eric M.; Esaian, Sevan (2020). "The importance of street trees to urban avifauna". Ecological Applications. 30 (7): 1–20. ISSN 1051-0761.
- ^ a b c Ryu, Young-Hee; Baik, Jong-Jin (May 2012). "Quantitative Analysis of Factors Contributing to Urban Heat Island Intensity". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 51 (5): 842–854 – via ProQuest.
- ^ a b c US EPA, OAR (2019-11-06). "Heat Islands and Equity". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ "The Inequitable Distribution of Urban Trees". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2022-09-19. Retrieved 2024-03-19.
- ^ a b c d e Gerrish, Ed; Watkins, Shannon Lea (2018-02-01). "The relationship between urban forests and income: A meta-analysis". Landscape and Urban Planning. 170: 293–308. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.09.005. ISSN 0169-2046. PMC 5726445. PMID 29249844.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b c Wu, Jiayu; He, Qingsong; Chen, Yunwen; Lin, Jian; Wang, Shantong (2018-08-13). "Dismantling the fence for social justice? Evidence based on the inequity of urban green space accessibility in the central urban area of Beijing". Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science. 47 (4): 626–644. doi:10.1177/2399808318793139. ISSN 2399-8083.
- ^ a b c d Mitchell, Bruce C.; Chakraborty, Jayajit; Basu, Pratyusha (2021-04-30). "Social Inequities in Urban Heat and Greenspace: Analyzing Climate Justice in Delhi, India". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (9): 4800. doi:10.3390/ijerph18094800. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 8124940. PMID 33946259.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b Openlands (2017-02-01). "Chicago's Urban Forest". Openlands. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ a b c Fernández-Álvarez, Rafael (2016-06-17). "Inequitable distribution of green public space in Mexico City: an environmental injustice case". Economía, sociedad y territorio. XVII (54): 399–428.
- ^ a b Strom, Steven (2007), Kuser, John E. (ed.), "Urban and Community Forestry: Planning and Design", Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 99–117, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4289-8_6, ISBN 978-1-4020-4289-8, retrieved 2024-02-20
- ^ Wood, Eric M.; Esaian, Sevan (2020). "The importance of street trees to urban avifauna". Ecological Applications. 30 (7): 1–20. ISSN 1051-0761.
- ^ a b c d Grant, Amber; Millward, Andrew A.; Edge, Sara; Roman, Lara A.; Teelucksingh, Cheryl (2022-11-01). "Where is environmental justice? A review of US urban forest management plans". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 77: 127737. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127737. ISSN 1618-8667.
- ^ Bret, Bernard; Moreau, Sophie (2022), Barozet, Emmanuelle; Sainsaulieu, Ivan; Cortesero, Régis; Mélo, David (eds.), "Spatial and Environmental Justice", Where Has Social Justice Gone? From Equality to Experimentation, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 145–158, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93123-0_9, ISBN 978-3-030-93123-0, retrieved 2024-02-20
- ^ US EPA, OEJECR (2015-02-13). "Learn About Environmental Justice". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ History.com editors (October 7, 2010, updated April 20, 2023). "Apartheid". History. Retrieved March 20, 2024.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help); Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Chersich, Matthew; Wright, Caradee; Venter, Francois; Rees, Helen; Scorgie, Fiona; Erasmus, Barend (2018-08-31). "Impacts of Climate Change on Health and Wellbeing in South Africa". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (9): 1884. doi:10.3390/ijerph15091884. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6164733. PMID 30200277.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ US EPA, OAR (2014-02-28). "Heat Island Effect". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ Pokorny, Jan; et al. (G. Katul, K. Novick) (2019-01-01), Fath, Brian (ed.), "Evapotranspiration☆", Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), vol. 2, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 292–303, ISBN 978-0-444-64130-4, retrieved 2024-02-20
- ^ Weiss, Caroline (2021-03). "Environmental Injustice: Roots, Impacts, and Urgent Solutions". www.climatecenter.pitt.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ US EPA, ORD (2017-11-02). "Contaminated Land". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ "Urban Heat Island Effect Solutions and Funding". National League of Cities. 2023-02-13. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ Bottcher, Erik; Brewer, Gale; Krishnan, Shekar; Maxwell, Emily Nobel (2023-09-12). "We must protect NYC's urban forest". New York Daily News. Retrieved 2024-02-20.