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Interplanetary medium
editAlong with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) known as
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editOuter planets
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The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99 percent of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn consist largely of hydrogen and helium. The bulk of Uranus and Neptune consist of “ices”, such as water, ammonia and methane. Some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, “ice giants.”[1] All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with superior planet, which designates planets outside Earth's orbit (the outer planets and Mars).
- Jupiter
- Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, masses 2.5 times all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has sixty-three known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating.[2] Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
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Earth's magnetic field protects its atmosphere from interacting with the solar wind. Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields, and the solar wind causes their atmospheres to [...]
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editThe Solar System[a] consists of the Sun and [...]
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- ^ Capitalization of the name varies. The IAU, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects (Solar System). However,[..]
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[...] heliopause, and ultimately the hypothetical Oort cloud.
In order of their distances from the Sun, the terrestrial planets are:
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[...] The remainder of the objects in orbit around the Sun are [[small Solar System body|small Solar System bodies]] (SSSBs).[3]
Natural satellites, or moons, are those objects in orbit around planets, dwarf planets and SSSBs, rather than the Sun itself.
Astronomers usually measure distances within the Solar System in astronomical units (AU). One AU is th [...]
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The outer gas giants (or Jovians) are:
- Jupiter
- [...]
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Formation and evolution
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The Solar System is believed to have formed according to the nebular hypothesis, which holds that it emerged from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud 4.6 billion years ago. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars.[4] Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of elements only formed in the hearts of very large exploding stars, indicating that the Sun formed within a star cluster, and in range of a number of nearby supernovae explosions. The shock wave from these supernovae may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating regions of overdensity in the surrounding nebula, allowing gravitational forces to overcome internal gas pressures and cause collapse.[5]
| Isotope | Nuclei per Million |
|---|---|
| Hydrogen-1 | 705,700 |
| Helium-4 | 275,200 |
| Oxygen-16 | 5,920 |
| Carbon-12 | 3,032 |
| Neon-20 | 1,548 |
| Iron-56 | 1,169 |
| Nitrogen-14 | 1,105 |
| Silicon-28 | 653 |
| Magnesium-24 | 513 |
| Sulfur-32 | 396 |
| Neon-22 | 208 |
| Magnesium-26 | 79 |
| Argon-36 | 77 |
| Iron-54 | 72 |
| Magnesium-25 | 69 |
| Calcium-40 | 60 |
| Aluminum-27 | 58 |
| Nickel-58 | 49 |
| Carbon-13 | 37 |
| Helium-3 | 35 |
| Silicon-29 | 34 |
| Sodium-23 | 33 |
| Iron-57 | 28 |
| Hydrogen-2 | 23 |
| Silicon-30 | 23 |
The region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula,[7] had a diameter of between 7000 and 20,000 AU[4][8] and a mass just over that of the Sun (by between 0.1 and 0.001 solar masses).[9] As the nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum made it rotate faster. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc.[4] As gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation acted on the contracting nebula, it began to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU[4] and a hot, dense protostar at the centre.[10][11]
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- ^ Jack J. Lissauer, David J. Stevenson (2006). "Formation of Giant Planets" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center; California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2006-01-16.
- ^ Pappalardo, R T (1999). "Geology of the Icy Galilean Satellites: A Framework for Compositional Studies". Brown University. Retrieved 2006-01-16.
- ^ "The Final IAU Resolution on the definition of "planet" ready for voting". IAU. 2006-08-24. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
- ^ a b c d "Lecture 13: The Nebular Theory of the origin of the Solar System". University of Arizona. Retrieved 2006-12-27.
- ^ Jeff Hester (2004). "New Theory Proposed for Solar System Formation". Arizona State University. Retrieved 2007-01-11.
- ^ Arnett, David (1996). Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis (First ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01147-8.
- ^ Irvine, W. M. (1983). "The chemical composition of the pre-solar nebula". Amherst College, Massachusetts. 1: 3. Bibcode:1983coex....1....3I. Retrieved 2007-02-15.
- ^ Rawal, J. J. (January 1985). "Further Considerations on Contracting Solar Nebula". Physics and Astronomy. 34 (1): 93–100. doi:10.1007/BF00054038. Retrieved 2006-12-27.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|abstract=ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Kitamura, Yoshimi; Momose, Munetake; Yokogawa, Sozo; Kawabe, Ryohei; Tamura, Motohide; Ida, Shigeru (2002). "Investigation of the Physical Properties of Protoplanetary Disks around T Tauri Stars by a 1 Arcsecond Imaging Survey: Evolution and Diversity of the Disks in Their Accretion Stage". The Astrophysical Journal. 581 (1): 357–380. doi:10.1086/344223.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Greaves, Jane S. (2005-01-07). "Disks Around Stars and the Growth of Planetary Systems". Science. 307 (5706): 68–71. doi:10.1126/science.1101979. PMID 15637266. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|abstract=ignored (help) - ^ "Present Understanding of the Origin of Planetary Systems". National Academy of Sciences. 2000-04-05. Retrieved 2007-01-19.