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I am creating a new article with covers the Kantrowitz Limit, an important concept in gas dynamics and supersonic devices such as jet engines, rocket engines, and the recently proposed Hyperloop. The Kantrowitz limit is an ever relevant concept in gas dynamics, and this subject has currently little to no coverage on Wikipedia, with only a very general description of the concept included on its inventor's biographical page, Arthur Kantrowitz.

In gas dynamics, the Kantrowitz limit refers to a theoretical concept describing describing choked flow at supersonic or near-supersonic velocities. When a fluid flow experiences a reduction in area, the flow speeds up in order to maintain the same mass-flow rate, per the continuity equation. If a near supersonic flow experiences an area contraction, the velocity of the flow will increase until it reaches the local speed of sound, and the flow will be choked. This is the principle behind the Kantrowitz limit: it is the maximum amount of contraction a flow can experience before the flow chokes, and the flow rate can no longer be increased above this limit, independent of changes in upstream or downstream pressure.

Derivation of Kantrowitz limit

Assume a fluid enters an internally contracting nozzle at cross-section 0, and passes through a throat of smaller area at cross-section 4. A normal shock is assumed to start at the beginning of the nozzle contraction, and this point in the nozzle is referred to as cross-section 2. Due to conservation of mass within the nozzle, the mass flow rate at each cross section must be equal:

${\dot {m}}_{0}={\dot {m}}_{2}={\dot {m}}_{4}$

For an ideal compressible gas, the mass flow rate at each cross-section can be written as,

${\dot {m}}_{0}={\sqrt {\frac {\gamma }{R}}}M_{0}\left(1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{0}^{2}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}{\frac {p_{t0}A_{0}}{\sqrt {T_{t0}}}}$

${\dot {m}}_{4}={\sqrt {\frac {\gamma }{R}}}M_{4}\left(1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{4}^{2}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}{\frac {p_{t4}A_{4}}{\sqrt {T_{t4}}}}$

where ${\textstyle A}$ is the cross-section area at the specified point, ${\textstyle \gamma }$ is the Isentropic expansion factor of the gas, ${\textstyle M}$ is the Mach number of the flow at the specified cross-section, ${\textstyle R}$ is the ideal gas constant, ${\textstyle p_{t}}$ is the stagnation pressure, and ${\textstyle T_{t}}$ is the stagnation temperature.

Letting the mass flow rates equal at the inlet and throat, and recognizing that the total temperature, ratio of specific heats, and gas constant are constant, the conservation of mass simplifies to,

$M_{0}\left(1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{0}^{2}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}p_{t0}A_{0}=M_{4}\left(1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{4}^{2}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}p_{t4}A_{4}$

Solving for A₄/A₀,

${\frac {A_{4}}{A_{0}}}={\frac {M_{0}}{M_{4}}}{\frac {p_{t0}}{p_{t4}}}\left({\frac {1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{0}^{2}}{1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{4}^{2}}}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}$

Three assumptions will be made: the flow from behind the normal shock in the inlet is isentropic, or p_t4 = p_t2 , the flow at the throat (point 4) is sonic such that M₄ = 1, and the pressures between the various point are related through normal shock relations, resulting in the following relation between inlet and throat pressures,

${\frac {p_{t0}}{p_{t4}}}=\left[{\frac {(\gamma +1)M_{0}^{2}}{(\gamma -1)M_{0}^{2}+2}}\right]^{\frac {-\gamma }{\gamma -1}}\left[{\frac {\gamma +1}{2\gamma M_{0}^{2}-(\gamma -1)}}\right]^{\frac {-1}{\gamma -1}}$

And since M₄ = 1, shock relations at the throat simplify to,

$M_{4}\left(1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{4}^{2}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}=\left({\frac {\gamma +1}{2}}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}$

Substituting for ${\textstyle M_{4}}$ and ${\textstyle {\frac {p_{t0}}{p_{t4}}}}$ in the area ration expression gives,

${\frac {A_{4}}{A_{0}}}=M_{0}\left({\frac {1+{\frac {\gamma -1}{2}}M_{0}^{2}}{\frac {\gamma +1}{2}}}\right)^{-{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}\left[{\frac {(\gamma +1)M_{0}^{2}}{(\gamma -1)M_{0}^{2}+2}}\right]^{\frac {-\gamma }{\gamma -1}}\left[{\frac {\gamma +1}{2\gamma M_{0}^{2}-(\gamma -1)}}\right]^{\frac {-1}{\gamma -1}}$

This can also be written as,

${\frac {A_{4}}{A_{0}}}=M_{0}\left({\frac {\gamma +1}{2+(\gamma -1)M_{0}^{2}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}\left[{\frac {(\gamma +1)M_{0}^{2}}{(\gamma -1)M_{0}^{2}+2}}\right]^{\frac {-\gamma }{\gamma -1}}\left[{\frac {\gamma +1}{2\gamma M_{0}^{2}-(\gamma -1)}}\right]^{\frac {-1}{\gamma -1}}$

Applications

The Kantrowitz limit has many applications in gas dynamics of inlet flow, including jet engines and rockets operating at high-subsonic and supersonic velocities, and high-speed transportation systems such as the Hyperloop.

Hyperloop

The Kantrowitz limit is a fundamental concept in the Hyperloop, a recent high-speed transportation option proposed by Elon Musk for rapid transit between populous city-pairs about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) apart. The Hyperloop moves passengers in sealed pods through a partial-vacuum tube at high-subsonic speeds. As the air in the tube moves into and around the smaller cross-sectional area between the pod and tube, the air flow must speed up due to the continuity principle. If the pod is travelling through the tube fast enough, the air flow around the pod will reach the speed of sound, and the flow will become choked, resulting in large air resistance on the pod. The condition that determine if the flow around the pod chokes is the Kantrowitz limit. The Kantrowitz limit therefore acts a "speed limit" - for a given ratio of tube area and pod area, there is a maximum speed that the pod can travel before flow around the pod chokes and air resistance sharply increases.

In order to break through the speed limit set by the Kantrowitz limit, there are two possible approaches. The first would increase the diameter of the tube in order to provide more bypass area for the air around the pod, preventing the flow from choking. This solution is not very practical in practice however, as the tube would have to be built very large, and logistical costs of such a large tube are impractical. Another possible solution as proposed by Elon Musk in his 2013 Hyperloop Alpha paper would have a compressor at the front of the pod. The compressor actively sucks in the high-pressure air in front of the pod and transfers it through the pod to either power a low-friction air-bearing suspension system or simply bypass the flow behind the pod. The inclusion of a compressor in the Hyperloop pod to circumvent the Kantrowitz limit would allow the pod to travel at speeds over 700 mph, avoiding the Kantrowitz limit.

For a pod travelling through a tube, the Kantrowitz limit is given as the ratio of tube area to bypass area both around the outside of the pod and through any air-bypass compressor:

${\frac {A_{bypass}}{A_{tube}}}=\left[{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma +1}}\right]^{\frac {1}{2}}\left[{\frac {2\gamma }{\gamma +1}}\right]^{\frac {1}{\gamma -1}}\left[1+{\frac {2}{\gamma -1}}{\frac {1}{M^{2}}}\right]^{\frac {1}{2}}\left[1-{\frac {\gamma -1}{2\gamma }}{\frac {1}{M^{2}}}\right]^{\frac {1}{\gamma -1}}$

where:
$A_{bypass}$	= cross-sectional area of bypass region between tube and pod, as well as air bypass provide by a compressor onboard the pod
$A_{tube}$	= cross-sectional area of tube
$M$	= Mach number of flow
$\gamma$	= ${\frac {c_{p}}{c_{v}}}$ = isentropic expansion factor
	($c_{p}$ and $c_{v}$ are specific heats of the gas at constant pressure and constant volume respectively),