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Epochs of the formation of the solar system

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  • Early bombardment phase begins.
  • Precambrian Supereon and Hadean eon begin on the Earth.
  • Pre-Noachian Era begins on Mars.
  • Pre-Tolstojan Period begins on Mercury – a large planetoid strikes Mercury stripping it of outer envelope of original crust and mantle, leaving the planet's core exposed – Mercury's iron content is notably high.

Many of the Galilean moons may have formed at this time including Europa and Titan which may presently be hospitable to some form of living organism.

  • (4.533 Gya): Formation of Earth-Moon system following giant impact by hypothetical planetoid Theia (planet). Moon's gravitational pull helps stabilize Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation. Pre-Nectarian Period begins on Moon.[1]
  • (4.529 Gya): Major collision with a pluto-sized planetoid establishes the Martian dichotomy on Mars – formation of North Polar Basin of Mars
  • (4.5 Gya): Sun becomes a main sequence yellow star: formation of the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt from which a stream of comets like Halley's Comet and Hale-Bopp begins passing through the Solar System, sometimes colliding with planets and the Sun
  • (4.404 Gya): Liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
  • (4.4 Gya): Formation of Kepler 438 b, one of the most Earth-like planets, from a protoplanetary nebula surrounding its parent star
  • (4.3 Gya): Massive meteorite impact creates South Pole Aitken Basin on the Moon – a huge chain of mountains located on the lunar southern limb, sometimes called "Leibnitz mountains", form
  • (4.2 Gya): Tharsis Bulge widespread area of vulcanism, becomes active on Mars – based on the intensity of volcanic activity on Earth, Tharsis magmas may have produced a 1.5-bar CO2 atmosphere and a global layer of water 120 m deep increasing greenhouse gas effect in climate and adding to Martian water table. Age of the oldest samples from the Lunar Maria
  • (4.1 Gya): Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt causing a disruption among asteroids and comets there. As a result, Late Heavy Bombardment batters the inner Solar System. Herschel Crater formed on Mimas (moon), a moon of Saturn. Meteorite impact creates the Hellas Planitia on Mars, the largest unambiguous structure on the planet. Anseris Mons an isolated massif (mountain) in the southern highlands of Mars, located at the northeastern edge of Hellas Planitia is uplifted in the wake of the meteorite impact
  • (4 Gya): HD 209458 b, first planet detected through its transit, forms. Messier 85, lenticular galaxy, disrupted by galaxy interaction: complex outer structure of shells and ripples results. Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies experience close encounter – high levels of star formation in Andromeda while Triangulum's outer disc is distorted
  • (3.938 Gya): Major period of impacts on the Moon: Mare Imbrium forms
  • (3.92 Gya): Nectaris Basin forms from large impact event: ejecta from Nectaris forms upper part of densely cratered Lunar Highlands - Nectarian Era begins on the Moon.
  • (3.9 Gya): Tolstoj (crater) forms on Mercury. Caloris Basin forms on Mercury leading to creation of "Weird Terraine" – seismic activity triggers volcanic activity globally on Mercury. Rembrandt (crater) formed on Mercury. Caloris Period begins on Mercury. Argyre Planitia forms from asteroid impact on Mars: surrounded by rugged massifs which form concentric and radial patterns around basin – several mountain ranges including Charitum and Nereidum Montes are uplifted in its wake
  • (3.85 Gya): Beginning of Late Imbrium Period on Moon. Earliest appearance of Procellarum KREEP Mg suite materials
  • (3.84 Gya): Formation of Orientale Basin from asteroid impact on Lunar surface – collision causes ripples in crust, resulting in three concentric circular features known as Montes Rook and Montes Cordillera
  • (3.8 Gya): In the wake of Late Heavy Bombardment impacts on the Moon, large molten mare depressions dominate lunar surface – major period of Lunar vulcanism begins (to 3 Gyr). Archean eon begins on the Earth.
  • (3.6 Gya): Alba Mons forms on Mars, largest volcano in terms of area
  • (3.5 Gya): Earliest fossil traces of life on Earth (stromatolites)
  • (3.2 Gya): Amazonian Period begins on Mars: Martian climate thins to its present density: groundwater stored in upper crust (megaregolith) begins to freeze, forming thick cryosphere overlying deeper zone of liquid water – dry ices composed of frozen carbon dioxide form Eratosthenian period begins on the Moon: main geologic force on the Moon becomes impact cratering
  • (3 Gya): Beethoven Basin forms on Mercury – unlike many basins of similar size on the Moon, Beethoven is not multi ringed and ejecta buries crater rim and is barely visible
  • (2.5 Gya): Proterozoic begins
  • (2.2 Gya): Last great tectonic period in Martian geologic history: Valles Marineris, largest canyon complex in the Solar System, forms – although some suggestions of thermokarst activity or even water erosion, it is suggested Valles Marineris is rift fault
Chronology of the formation and evolution of the Solar System
Phase Time since formation of the Sun Time from present (approximate) Event
Pre-Solar System Billions of years before the formation of the Solar System Over 4.6 billion years ago (bya) Previous generations of stars live and die, injecting heavy elements into the interstellar medium out of which the Solar System formed.[2]
~ 50 million years before formation of the Solar System 4.6 bya If the Solar System formed in an Orion Nebula-like star-forming region, the most massive stars are formed, live their lives, die, and explode in supernova. One particular supernova, called the primal supernova, possibly triggers the formation of the Solar System.[3][4]
Formation of Sun 0–100,000 years 4.6 bya Pre-solar nebula forms and begins to collapse. Sun begins to form.[5]
100,000 – 50 million years 4.6 bya Sun is a T Tauri protostar.[6]
100,000 – 10 million years 4.6 bya By 10 million years, gas in the protoplanetary disc has been blown away, and outer planet formation is likely complete.[5]
10 million – 100 million years 4.5–4.6 bya Terrestrial planets and the Moon form. Giant impacts occur. Water delivered to Earth.[7]
Main sequence 50 million years 4.5 bya Sun becomes a main-sequence star.[8]
200 million years 4.4 bya Oldest known rocks on the Earth formed.[9][10]
500 million – 600 million years 4.0–4.1 bya Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt. Late Heavy Bombardment occurs in the inner Solar System.[7]
800 million years 3.8 bya Oldest known life on Earth.[11][10] Oort cloud reaches maximum mass.[12]
4.6 billion years Today Sun remains a main-sequence star.[13]
6 billion years 1.4 billion years in the future Sun's habitable zone moves outside of the Earth's orbit, possibly shifting onto Mars's orbit.[14]
7 billion years 2.4 billion years in the future The Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy begin to collide. Slight chance the Solar System could be captured by Andromeda before the two galaxies fuse completely.[15]
Post–main sequence 10 billion – 12 billion years 5–7 billion years in the future Sun has fused all of the hydrogen in the core and starts to burn hydrogen in a shell surrounding its core, thus ending its main sequence life. Sun begins to ascend the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, growing dramatically more luminous (by a factor of up to 2,700), larger (by a factor of up to 250 in radius), and cooler (down to 2600 K): Sun is now a red giant. Mercury, Venus and possibly Earth are swallowed.[16][17] During this time Saturn's moon Titan may become habitable.[18]
~ 12 billion years ~ 7 billion years in the future Sun passes through helium-burning horizontal-branch and asymptotic-giant-branch phases, losing a total of ~30% of its mass in all post-main-sequence phases. The asymptotic-giant-branch phase ends with the ejection of its outer layers as a planetary nebula, leaving the dense core of the Sun behind as a white dwarf.[16][19]
Remnant Sun ~ 1 quadrillion years (1015 years) ~ 1 quadrillion years in the future Sun cools to 5 K.[20] Gravity of passing stars detaches planets from orbits. Solar System ceases to exist.[21]
  1. ^ Fernandes V. A., Fritz J., Weiss B., Garrick-Bethel and Shuster D. (2013) The bombardment history of the Moon as recorded by 40Ar-39Ar chronology. Meteor. and Planet. Sci. 48, 241–269. DOI: 10.1111/maps.12054.
  2. ^ Charles H. Lineweaver (2001). "An Estimate of the Age Distribution of Terrestrial Planets in the Universe: Quantifying Metallicity as a Selection Effect". Icarus. 151 (2): 307–313. arXiv:astro-ph/0012399. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..307L. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6607. S2CID 14077895.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference cradle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference iron was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference sciam was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Montmerle2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Gomes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yi2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wilde was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ a b Courtland, Rachel (July 2, 2008). "Did newborn Earth harbour life?". New Scientist. Retrieved April 13, 2014.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference life was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morbidelli2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference scientist was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference mars was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference cain was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Schroder2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference sun_future was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Titan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ Cite error: The named reference nebula was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (1986). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282147-8. LCCN 87028148.
  21. ^ Cite error: The named reference dyson was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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