Muqawama (Arabic: مقاومة, muqāwama) is word that literally means "resistance." It is used to describe various political, social and cultural movements and activities throughout the Arab world.
When it is used to describe armed struggle, muqawama differs from jihad in that it generally implies a secular nationalist war against occupation rather than a religious struggle against occupation and apostate regimes.[1]
Muqawama in the Arab world
editEgypt
editDuring the Suez Crisis, trade unions organized popular resistance committees to mobilize support for the nationalization of the Suez Canal. One of these committees was known as al-Lajna al-Niqabiyya l'il Muqawama al-Sha'abiya (The Trade Union Committee for Popular Resistance) and it organized workers to support the national defense effort in the lead up to the 1956 war. While the Egyptian government initially welcomed their activities, it soon felt threatened by the idea of leftist and communist worker being armed, and acted to disband the committee, which was led by Yusuf Darwish, whose office was closed by government forces in November 1956.[2]
Later, there was a nationwide muqawama in Egypt against the cottom worm. In the summer months, young children could earn a wage working to protect young cotton plants from the larvae of the worm.[3]
Iraq
editIn Iraq, Ibrahim al-Shamari, the spokesperson for the Islamic Army in Iraq (IAI) refers to insurgents there as muqawama, as contrasted against the jihadi Salafists like Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who view their struggle as jihad.[1]
Lebanon
editThere are a number of political groups in Lebanon whose names include the word muqawama. For example, there is a Shiite-affiliated paraliamentary group named Kutlat Al-Wafaa Lil Muqawama which means literally, 'Loyalty to the Resistance [to the Israeli occupation] Group'.[4] The militia and political party, AMAL ("hope"), is an acronym that stands for Afwaj al-Muqawama al Lubnaniya or the 'Lebanese Resistance Detachments'.[5]
Hezbollah has constructed a consistent discourse around the notion of muqawama against occupation. The mission and identity of the organization are rooted in its founding belief that the Israeli occupation of south Lebanon should be defeated using armed resistance.[6]
Palestine
editThe first muqawama in Palestine was mounted by Palestinian fellahin against Zionist settlement there at the turn of the 20th century. Protest against land sales by absentee landlords in areas such as Shajara that resulted in the displacement of these peasants prompted the launching of attacks on the new Jewish settlements. Often recalled by Palestinian armed groups who emerged in the 1930s and the 1960s as the first heroic resistance, the symbols of this first muqawama, such as the keffiyehs that they wore, and the term muqawama itself, were adopted by later groups who saw themselves as continuing that struggle.[7]
Hamas is an acronym that stands for Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya ('Islamic Resistance Movement').
Examples of usage
edit- Leila Khaled, who highjacked planes as a member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in the 1970s, expressed her support in the 21st century for Al-Muqawama ("the Resistance") in all its forms and by both sexes.[8]
References
editBibliography
edit- Adams, Richard H. (1986). Development and social change in rural Egypt (Illustrated ed.). Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0815623623, 9780815623625.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Beinin, Joel (February 1989). "Labor, Capital, and the State in Nasserist Egypt, 1952-1961". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 21 (1). Cambridge University Press: 71–90.
- El Guindi, Fadwa (2005). Faye Venetia Harrison (ed.). Resisting racism and xenophobia: global perspectives on race, gender, and human rights (Illustrated ed.). Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0759104824, 9780759104822.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Hafez, Mohammed M. (2007). Suicide bombers in Iraq: the strategy and ideology of martyrdom (Illustrated ed.). US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 1601270046, 9781601270047.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Harb, Mona; Leenders, Reinoud (2005). "Know Thy Enemy: Hizbullah, 'Terrorism' and the Politics of Perception". Third World Quarterly. 26 (1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd: 173–197.
- İlkkaracan, Pinar (2008). Deconstructing sexuality in the Middle East: challenges and discourses. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0754672352, 9780754672357.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Khalidi, Rashid (1998). Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231105150, 9780231105156.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Ali Rahnema, ed. (1994). Pioneers of Islamic revival (Illustrated ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1856492540, 9781856492546.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help)