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Part of the built environment: suburban tract housing in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

In social science, a built environment is “the humanitarian-made space in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis.”[1] It “encompasses places and spaces created or modified by people including buildings, parks, and transportation systems,”[2] as well as supporting infrastructure such as waste disposal systems and overhead power lines.[3] In recent years, public health research has explored the relationship to physical and mental health of neighborhood features such as “walkability”, “bikeability”, healthy food access, and community gardens.[2] The association with depression of these and other environmental exposures such as housing conditions and noise level has also been assessed.[4][5][6] Notably, exposure to adverse environmental conditions such as poorly maintained housing and high levels of ambient noise are not randomly distributed and tend to concentrate among the poor and ethnic minorities, resulting in health disparities.[7]

History

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Early concepts of built environment date to Classical Antiquity: Hippodamus of Miletos, known as the “father of urban planning,” developed Greek cities from 498 BC to 408 BC that created order by using grid plans that mapped the city.[8] These early city plans inspired the City Beautiful movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s, of which Daniel Hudson Burnham was a great proponent. Burnham, a reformist for the Progressivism movement, advocated for “a reform of the landscape in tandem with political change.”[9] The effort was in partnership with others who believed that beautifying American cities would improve the moral compass of the cities and encourage the upper class to spend their money in cities. This beautification process included the establishment of parks and aesthetically pleasing architecture.[10]

Modern built environment

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Currently, the term built environment refers to an interdisciplinary field that addresses the design, construction, management, and use of man-made surroundings as an interrelated whole, and their relationship to human activities over time (rather than a particular element in isolation or at a single moment in time).Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). The field is not considered a traditional profession or academic discipline in its own right, instead drawing upon areas such as economics, law, public policy, management, geography, design, technology, environmental sustainability, and public health.

Public health

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Neighborhood design can affect both physical and mental health.[11] Built environments with features designed to promote physical activity - such as well-maintained sidewalks - are in fact associated with higher rates of physical activity, which in turn improves health.[12] Neighborhoods with more "walkability" - which is affected by perceptions of safety, the condition of sidewalks, and distance to amenities, among other factors - had lower rates of obesity and increased physical activity among residents.[11] They also had lower rates of depression, higher social capital, and less alcohol abuse.

Geographic information systems (GIS) programs facilitate assessments of walkability.[13] One such program, Street Smart Walk Score, determines distances to grocery stores and other amenities; connectivity; and intersection frequency for any given physical address.[14] This kind of technology can be used by city and county planning departments to enhance walkability in their communities.

Other neighborhood features associated with improved health are "bikeability", healthy food access, and community gardens. Bikeability refers to ease of biking and is enhanced by the creation of dedicated, safe spaces for biking such as bike paths and bike lanes.[15] Healthy food access refers to a neighborhood’s physical proximity to sources of fresh, healthy food and the affordability of such food.[16]

Increased density of convenience stores, which are typically stocked with high-calorie, processed foods, has been associated with obesity in children.[17] In contrast, improved access to community supermarkets and farmers’ markets is correlated with lower child body mass index (BMI) and overweight status.[18] In low-income neighborhoods, which tend to have comparatively few health promoting features,[7] the presence of a local grocery stores was correlated with lower BMI and risk of becoming overweight.[19] Similarly, access to community gardens was associated with increased fruit and vegetable intake among gardeners.[20] Community gardens may have other salutary effects on residents such as reducing stress, lowering blood pressure, and instilling an overall sense of wellness.[21]

The built environment exists at the intersection of public health and other disciplines such as environmental planning, policy development and land-use planning.[1] Mixed land use and good street connectivity are associated with increased physical activity.[22] In addition, those who prefer to walk and live in walkable environments have lower obesity rates and drive less than those who prefer living in auto-dependent environments.[23] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) underscores the significant role of the built environment in the development of obesity in its Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project, in which fully eight (of 24) strategies are devoted to “creat[ing] safe communities that support physical activity.”[24]

 
A separated bike lane in New York City.

Depression

Those living in poor built environments have higher rates of depression.[25] This association has been observed over the past 10-15 years in studies examining neighborhood design,[4] housing conditions,[5] and residential ambient noise.[6]

Neighborhood features

Gariepy, et al. (2015) found that the presence of neighborhood amenities such as healthy food stores, fast-food restaurants and healthcare services were associated with a reduced risk for a depressive episode among those with low past-year prevalence of depression.[4] The presence of a local park was similarly associated with reduced risk for a depressive episode among those with both low and moderate past-year prevalence of depression. However, the risk for a depressive episode among those with the highest past-year prevalence of depression appeared unaffected by neighborhood features, suggesting the need for more intensive interventions in this group. 

Housing conditions

Galea, et al. (2005) found that poor quality internal (e.g., broken appliances) and external built (e.g., deteriorating conditions) built environment features were positively associated with past six-month and lifetime depression among residents of 59 New York City neighborhoods.[5] Specifically, non-functioning kitchen facilities, heat breakdowns, peeling plaster or paint, evidence of external building deterioration, and incidence of structural fires were independently significantly associated with past six-month and lifetime depression. 

Noise

Lercher et al (2002) found that higher levels of exposure to ambient noise was associated with increased reporting of depression and anxiety symptoms in elementary school children in a linear dose-response fashion. This effect was magnified in children who had early life biological risk factors such as low birth weight or pre-term birth.

Challenges/solutions

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Policies to increase vegetation may provide opportunities for physical activity, reduce harmful exposures, increase social engagement, and improve mental health.[26] In addition, deliberate planning for communities with central gathering places can increase the likelihood that people will socialize casually, which may also lead to improved mental health among residents.[27]

Current barriers to improving adverse environmental conditions include the cost of repairing an aging infrastructure, the existence of problems that are considered higher legislative priorities, and institutionalized racism. It is estimated that over $3.6 trillion will be needed to fund repairs to current infrastructure in the United States by 2020,[28] and priority will almost certainly be given to improvement or restoration of essential services such as safe water in Flint, Michigan. The concentration of exposures to poor environmental conditions in low-income communities and/or those with large numbers of ethnic minorities is likely due to institutional racism and could be partially rectified by raising awareness about institutional racism generally and by empowering vulnerable populations to participate in community- and state-level political decision-making processes.[29]

 
A commmunity garden located in Montreal, Canada.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Roof, K; Oleru N. (2008). "Public Health: Seattle and King County's Push for the Built Environment". J Environ Health. 71: 24–27.
  2. ^ a b Lee, V; Mikkelsen, L; Srikantharajah, J; Cohen, L. "Strategies for Enhancing the Built Environment to Support Healthy Eating and Active Living". Prevention Institute. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  3. ^ Srinivasan, S; O'Fallon, L. R.; Dearry, A (2003). "Creating Healthy Communities, Healthy Homes, Healthy People: Initiating a Research Agenda on the Built Environment and Public Health". American Journal of Public Health.
  4. ^ a b c Gariepy, G; Thombs, B. D.; Kestens, Y; Kaufman, J. S.; Blair, A; Schmitz, N (2015). "The neighbourhood built environment and trajectories of depression symptom episodes in adults: A latent class growth analysis". PLoS One.
  5. ^ a b c Galea, S; Ahern, J; Rudenstein, S; Wallace, Z; Vlahov, D (2005). "Urban built environment and depression: A multilevel analysis". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health.
  6. ^ a b Lercher, P; Evans, G. W.; Meis, M; Kofler, W. W. (2002). "Ambient neighbourhood noise and children's mental health". Occupational and Environmental Medicine.
  7. ^ a b Do, D. P.; Finch, B. K.; Basurto-Davila, R; Bird, C; Escarce, J; Lurie, N (2008). "Does place explain racial health disparities? Quantifying the contribution of residential context to the Black/white health gap in the United States". Social Science & Medicine.
  8. ^ Lytton, E. B. (2004). Athens, its rise and fall: With views of the literature, philosophy, and social life of the Athenian people. Routledge. p. 144.
  9. ^ "The City Beautiful Movement". Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  10. ^ "Architecture: The City Beautiful Movement". Retrieved 22 April 2012.
  11. ^ a b Renalds, A; Smith, T; Hale, P (2010). "A Systematic Review of Built Environment and Health". Family and Community Health. 33: 68–78. doi:10.1097/fch.0b013e3181c4e2e5.
  12. ^ Carlson, C; Aytur, S; Gardner, K; Rogers, S (2012). "Complexity in Built Environment, Health, and Destination Walking: A Neighborhood-Scale Analysis". J Urban Health. 89: 270–84. doi:10.1007/s11524-011-9652-8.
  13. ^ Schlossberg, M; Agrawal, A; Irvin, K (2007). "An Assessment of GIS-Enabled Walkability Audits" (PDF). URISA Journal. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  14. ^ "Walk Score Methodology" (PDF). Retrieved 30 March 2012.
  15. ^ Cochrane, T; Davey, R (2008). "Increasing uptake of physical activity: A social ecological approach". J R Soc Promot Health. 128: 31–40.
  16. ^ "United States Department of Agriculture" (PDF). Healthy Food Access. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
  17. ^ Grafova, I (2008). "Overweight Children: Assessing The Contribution Of The Built Environment". Prev Med. 47: 304.
  18. ^ Rahman, T; Cushing RA; Jackson RJ (2011). "Contributions of built environment to childhood obesity". Mt Sinai J Med. 78: 49–57. doi:10.1002/msj.20235.
  19. ^ Zick, C; Smith, K; Fan, J; Brown, B; Yamada, I; Kowaleski-Jones, L (2009). "Running to the store? The relationship between neighborhood environments and the risk of obesity". Soc Sci Med. 69: 1493–500.
  20. ^ Litt, J; Soobader, M; Turbin, M; Hale, J; Buchenau, M; Marshall, J (2011). "The influence of social involvement, neighborhood aesthetics, and community garden participation on fruit and vegetable consumption". Am J Public Health. 101: 1466–73. doi:10.2105/ajph.2010.300111.
  21. ^ Burls, A (2007). "People and green spaces: promoting public health and mental well‐being through ecotherapy" (PDF). Journal of Public Mental Health. 6 (3): 24–39. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  22. ^ Heath, G; Brownson, R; Kruger, J; et al. (2006). "The effectiveness of urban design and land use and transport policies and practices to increase physical activity: a systematic review". J Phys Act Health. 3: S55–S76.
  23. ^ Frank, L; Saelens, B; Powell, K; Chapmen, J (2007). "Stepping towards causation: Do built environments or neighborhood and travel preferences explain physical activity, driving, and obesity?". Social Science & Medicine. 65: 1898–1914. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.053.
  24. ^ Kahn, LK; Sobush K; Keener D; et al. (2009). "Recommended community strategies and measurements to prevention obesity in the United States". MMWR Recomm Rep. 58: 1–26.
  25. ^ Silver, E; Mulvey, E. P.; Swanson, J. W. (2002). "Neighborhood structural characteristics and mental disorders: Faris and Dunham revisited". Soc Sci Med (55): 1457–70.
  26. ^ James, P; Hart, J; Banay, R; Laden, F (2016). "Exposure to Greenness and Mortality in a Nationwide Prospective Cohort Study of Women". Environ Health Perspect. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  27. ^ Izenberg, J. M.; Fullilove, M. T. (2016). "Hospitality Invites Sociability, Which Builds Cohesion: A Model for the Role of Main Streets in Population Mental Health". Journal of Urban Health (93): 292–311. doi:10.1007/s11524-016-0027-z.
  28. ^ "Infrastructure Report Card" (PDF). American Society for Civil Engineers. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  29. ^ "Promoting Equity through the Practice of Health Impact Assessment" (PDF). Retrieved May 9, 2016.

Further reading

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[:Category:Architectural terminology]] Category:Urban studies and planning terminology Category:Environmental health Category:Human geography Category:Cultural landscapes Category:Environmental social science concepts

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