(<> indicates content taken from the existing page)
<Fuche Naw or Anong [ɑ˧˩nuŋ˧˥] (Derung: Vnung [ə˧˩nuŋ˥˧]),> is a language spoken in the Fúgòng County of the Nujiang Lisu Prefecture of the Yunnan Province located in southwestern China and areas of Myanmar.[1][2] <It is also spoken in Kachin State, Myanmar*edited from existing page.> Anong is spoken by the Anong subgroup of the Nu ethnic group.[1] Although there is no traditional formal writing system, the Anong of Myanmar have recently developed one[1]:3, footnote, as suggested by the existence of other written texts that are almost mutually intelligible with some phonological and lexical differences.[1]:3,16
It is estimated that there are fewer than 400 speakers of Anong left, and the language is considered seriously endangered.[1] Ethnologue marks Anong as a level 8a language or moribund, meaning that the only active users of the language are of the grandparent generation or older. This means that neither the parent generation nor their children know or are acquiring Anong, so the language is no longer being passed down to future generations.[2] Many speakers of Anong are shifting away from their native language to Lisu, Chinese, and Bai <although the speakers are being classified as Nu nationality>.[1]:9
Anong is genetically classified as a part of the Jingpo subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman language within the larger Sino-Tibetan language family.[1]:8
Other names for Anong include Anoong, Anu, Anung, Fuch’ye, Fuchve, Khingpang, Kwingsang, Kwinp’ang, Naw, Nawpha, and Nu.[2]
<Anong language is closely related to the Derung and Rawang languages.>
Demographics (section from the existing page)
edit(There seems to be some disagreement between different sources about which people actually constitute the Anong people and also which languages constitute the Anong language. My grammar says that there have been written texts similar to what the grammar considers Anong, but it's not completely the same, so it seems like my grammar's boundaries on the Anong language are considerably more strict than those represented in the existing Wikipedia page. However, because the statistics on Ethnologue match those of my grammar much better than the 7000+ speakers written on the current Wikipedia page, I decided to (at least in my sandbox) exclude the statistics from the current page from my sandbox. For that reason also, I didn't include the rest of the discussion on demographics either, because it discusses details that are in contradiction with my grammar.)
Phonology
editAnong has maintained much of the sound structure of its original Tibeto-Burman character, although many of the more complex sounds and governing patterns are now simplified.[1]:19
Vowels
editAnong has ten simple vowel phonemes, plus a series of nasalized vowels, and a host of complex vowel phonemes.[1]:23
The vowel phonemes are as follows: /i/, /y/, /u/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/, /ɛ/, /ɑ/, /a/, and the apical vowel /ɿ/.
Several of the vowels vary slightly from their standard IPA values, as listed in the following:[1]:23
- The /i/ vowel is more open than the standard IPA /i/.
- The /e/ vowel is slightly lower than the standard IPA /e/, with a sound that approaches /æ/.
- The /ɛ/ vowel is slightly more center and open than the standard IPA /ɛ/.
- The /u/ and /o/ vowels are slightly more open than their standard counterparts.
- The /ɯ/ is more center and open than the standard IPA /ɯ/.
The vowels /i/, /e/, /ɛ/, /a/, /ɑ/, /ɯ/, /u/, and /o/ have nasalized counterparts, along with a few nasalized diphthongs /iɛ̃/, /iã/, /iɑ̃/, /uɛ̃/, and /uɑ̃/.[1]:25 Contrastive nasalized vowels are a relatively new phenomenon in Anong phonology.[1]:25 For example, the word 'lɑ33' translates to 'to look for, seek', while 'lɑ̃31' becomes 'to swim'.[1]:25
Anong has an additional 22 complex vowels, 20 of which are diphthongs and two of which are triphthongs.
| Instantiation | |
|---|---|
| Diphthongs with /i/, /u/, /y/ Onset | /ie/, /iɛ/, /ia/, /iɑ/, /io/, /iu/, /iɯ/, /ui/, /ue/, /uɛ/, /ua/, /uɑ/, /yi/, /ye/, /yɛ/, /ɯi/, /ɿu/ |
| Diphthongs with /i/, /u/ Coda | /ei/, /ɑi/, /ɑu/ |
| Triphthongs | /iɑu/, /uɑi/ |
Complex vowels occur only with low frequency.[1]:27 Triphthongs only occur in Chinese loanwords, which suggests that complex vowels might be relatively new in Anong as a result of Lisu and Chinese influence.[1]:27
Consonants
editAnong has 47 single initial consonants, including two multi-place consonants and nine affricates .[1] There are seven places of articulation, and five manners.[1] Single-place non-affricates are represented in the table below. The right column within each place of articulation represents a voiced constant. The -h mark indicates an aspirated consonant. (The consonant table below was taken from the existing page to replace the one I had.)
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | voiceless | m̥ | n̥ | ɳ̥ | ɲ̥ | ŋ̊ | |
| voiced | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | kʰ | ||
| tenuis | p | t | ʈ | k | ʔ | ||
| voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | aspirated | tsʰ | tʂʰ | tɕʰ | |||
| tenuis | ts | tʂ | tɕ | ||||
| voiced | dz | ɖʐ | dʑ | ||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʂ | ɕ | x | h |
| voiced | v | z | ʐ | ʑ | ɣ | ||
| Lateral | voiceless | l̥ | |||||
| voiced | l | ɭ | |||||
| Rhotic | voiced | ɹ | |||||
The consonant /ɹ/ is an unstable semi-vowel and is realized as a voiced alveolar fricative or voiced alveolar retroflex fricative.[1]:20
Additionally, Anong has 23 initial consonant clusters, which are categorized based on the presence of certain phonetic units.[1]:22
| Instantiation | |
|---|---|
| Retroflex Semi-Vowel Second | /pɹ/, /phɹ/, /bɹ/, /mɹ/, /fɹ/, /vɹ/, /khɹ/, /gɹ/, /xɹ/ |
| Preglottalized Onsets | /ʔb/, /ʔd/, /ʔɖ/, /ʔg/, /ʔdz/, /ʔdʐ/, /ʔdʑ/, /ʔm/, /ʔn/, /ʔl/, /ʔɳ/, /ʔȵ/, /ʔŋ/ |
| Preglottalized Onset and Retroflex-Semi-Vowel Second | /ʔbɹ/ |
Use of consonant clusters has decreased and only appears in the speech of elderly speakers of Anong.[1]: 22
Tone
editThere are five tones in Anong: 55, 33, 53, 31, and 35. The distinction between each of the tones varies, depending on surrounding tones. Tones 35 and 53 appear relatively infrequently.[1]:30
| Tone Number | Tone Description | Instantiation | Translation | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 55 | high level | tɕʰuŋ55 | '(earthen) jar' | lim55 | 'bake, roast' |
| 53 | high falling | tɕʰuŋ53 | 'straight; press' | lim53 | 'egg' |
| 33 | mid level | tɕʰuŋ33 | 'to play on swing' | lim33 | 'turn on (water)' |
| 31 | mid falling | tɕʰuŋ31 | 'dig up' | lim31 | 'bury' |
| 35 | mid rising | ɑ31tɕʰuŋ35 | 'to fish' | lim35 | 'lay (egg)' |
There are no clear systematic rules for tone sandhi in Anong.[1]
Syllable Structure
editSyllables in Anong are comprised of three parts: an initial (onset), a rhyme (vowel plus the accompanying coda), and a tone. Some syllables lack initials but minimally must contain at least one sound (either a vowel or a syllabic consonant) and maximally contain five.[1]:31
The general syllable is as follows: (C)(C)(C)(V)V(V)(C)T.[1] (C = consonant, V = vowel, T = tone)
Out of this general form, there are 14 possible permutations, represented in the table below.
| Template | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| C | m̩31 | 'not' |
| V | o31 | 'carry on back' (CLF.) |
| VV | iɯ31 | 'seed' |
| VVV | iɑu55tɕʰɯ31 | 'demand' |
| CV | bɛ55 | 'white' |
| CVV | ɑ31xuɑ35 | 'go mad' |
| CVVV | phiɑu35 | 'ticket' |
| CCV | phɹɿ55 | 'dig' |
| CCVC | ʔdɛm55 | 'on credit' |
| CCCVC | ɕɑ55ʔbɹɯn35 | 'step across' |
| VC | in55 | 'to sweat' |
| VVC | iɑŋ31 | 'item (thing)', CLF. |
| CVC | sɑn55 | 'slaughter' |
| CVVC | giɛn35 | 'exist'; 'to mail' |
(CLF = classifier)
Of the 14 syllabic structures, VVV and CVVV only occur in Chinese loans. CCCVC occurs extremely infrequently, while the most frequent are V, VV, CV, CVV, VC, VVC, and CVC.[1]:31
Anong frequently uses weakened syllables, which are short and indistinct, normally with a 31 tone, and consist of a reduced simple vowel without a coda.[1]:31
The Anong lexicon is becoming increasingly bi or polysyllabic.[1]:31
Morphology
editAs a member of the Tibeto-Burman language family, Anong shares many grammatical characteristics with the languages in this family, including an extensive classifier system, postposed auxiliaries, and grammatical particles.[1]:55
Anong has characteristics of both a polysynthetic agglutinating and a fusional language.[1]:55 Words in Anong can be classified as one of eleven categories: nouns, numerals, classifiers and measure words, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, mood particles, interjections, and particles.[1]
A morphological process through which words are built is affixation.[1] Anong is particularly rich in prefixes, which are comprised exclusively of single vowels with no consonant endings.[1]:44 However, most prefixes meanings are difficult to identify, especially the meaning of prefixes derived from consonant cluster reduction.[1]:47 Suffix functions are clearer.[1]:47
Derivational Affixes
editAffixes are a critical part of word formation in Anong.
There are ten common prefixes used, including 'phɯ31', 'bɯ31', 'mɯ31', 'sɿ31' (marks the causative), 'ʂɿ31', 'dɯ31' (sometimes manifested as 'di31'), 'ɹɯ31' (sometimes 'ʐɯ31' or 'zɿ31'), 'ŋ̩̩31' (also 'ʔo31' and 'ʔŋ̩31', one of the most productive prefixes), 'ɑ31' (most productive prefix), and 'i55' (sometimes 'i55' or 'i31') along with many other lower frequency prefixes, for example, 'pɯ31', 'tshɿ31', 'dzɿ31', 'tɯ31', 'thɯ31', 'ɖɯ31', 'tɕhi31', 'dʑi31', 'ɕi31', 'ȵi31', 'kɯ31', 'khɯ31', and 'gɯ31'.[1]:47 No specific meanings are given for these prefixes in the grammar.[1]:44-47
There are seven commonly used suffixes.
| Suffix | Function | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| su55 | nominalizer, derives noun referencing actor of verb, 'person' | sɿ31lɑm55su55 | 'teacher' |
| phɯ31 | nominalizer, derives noun referencing actor of verb, 'person' | po31 phɯ31 | 'guarantor'; 'sponsor' |
| dɛm55 | nominalizer, derives noun referencing thing that is used for a function, occurs with verb-noun (VN) compounds | mɑ33xuŋ55 (cloth) + zɑn53 (weave) + -dɛm55 | 'loom' |
| kha55 | combines with nouns of places, times, directions to refer to locations and times | mɑ55ʂu31khɑ55 | 'in front'; 'front' |
| ɛ55 or ɛ31 | stative adjectives | ȵɯŋ31ɛ31 | 'deep' |
| za55 | occurs on human nouns, refers to young people | sɿ31lɑŋ55zɑ55 | 'girl' |
| ua31 | occurs on adjectives and other words, derives adverbial expressions | kha31mã55 uɑ33 | 'quiet'; 'stealthily' |
Note the tonal shift in the suffix in the last row.
There are also a number of additional nominalizers. Verb nominalizers can combine with both verbs and verb-object phrases. When verb-object phrases are nominalized, the derived noun means 'the thing used to perform the verb'.[1]:89 One non-verb nominalizer is -u31, which is used to turn adjectives into nouns. For example, in the following sentence, the adjective 'soft' becomes the noun 'the soft (one)':[1]:97
ɐ31ɲɐ̃31
'soft'
u31
nominalizer
ɳɯ31ɐ55
DEF
'The light (one) is cotton'
Derivational affixes can be used in combination with other morphological processes in order to transition certain words from one part of speech to another.[1]
Inflectional Affixes
editInflectional affixes play a wide variety of different roles in Anong, depending on the part of speech of the root.[1] In nouns, for example, there are two pluralizing suffixes 'zɿ31ɳɯ31' (animate nouns only) and 'mɯ53' (both animate and inanimate nouns).
| Suffix | Root | Root Translation | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| zɿ31ɳɯ31 | ŋuɑ55 | 'fish' | ŋuɑ55zɿ31ɳɯ31 | 'fish (plural)' |
| mɯ53 | ʂɿ55dzɯŋ55 | 'tree' | 'ʂɿ55dzɯŋ55mɯ53 | 'trees' |
Noun possession is indicated by possessive prefixes, which are different depending on the person of the possessor.
| Person | Prefix | Root | Root Translation | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Person | ɑ31 | phɯ31 | 'father' | ɑ31phɯ31 | 'my father' |
| Second Person | ɳɯ31 | ɳɯ31phɯ31 | 'your father' | ||
| Third Person | ŋ31 | ŋ31phɯ31 | 'his father' |
There is also a general possessive prefix 'khɑ31' that is supplemented by a person marker indicating the difference between first, second, and third person.[1]:58
For nouns, gender and diminutives are also marked off with suffixes.[1]:59
For verbs, affixation is used to indicate agreement in person and number with the subject. All persons (e.g. first person singular, second person dual, first person plural exclusive, etc.) have different sets of prefixes, suffixes, or both to indicate agreement.[1]:77-78 In some cases, when the subject is third person, and the object and modifier are first or second person, the verb matches the object/modifier, a process called inverse marking.[1]:78
ɳɐ31
2nd
phu31
'to blow (on a fire)'
ɳɰ31
2PL
'To blow on a fire'
(2PL is a suffix added to a verb when the subject is third person and the object and its modifier are second person plural; the verb matches the object instead of the subject.[1]:80)
There are many other functions of affixations in verbs, some that occur with other morphological processes. Five aspects are marked by suffixation on verbs: future progressive, present progressive, perfect progressive, experiential, and perfective.[1]:80 Three voices are marked by affixation and internal verb root changes: reflexive (middle), causative, and reciprocal.
ɐ31
Reciprocal
ɕi31
Causative
dʑɰŋ31
'believe'
'Cause to believe each other'
(There are several other prefixes that are used to indicate causal relationships.[1]:84)
Indicative, imperative, and optative moods are marked by affixation or by voicing alternations of initials on verb roots.[1]:85 Direction is expressed through suffixation, and emphasizes the distinction between centrifugal (motion toward the center of action, usually the place of the speech act) and centripetal directions (motion away from the center of action, usually the speech act).[1]:87-88 Some auxiliary verbs are also expressed as verbal suffixes, although they contain specific meanings and can occur alone in special contexts.[1]:92
Similar richness of affixational function exists across all other parts of speech.
Particles
editParticles play a role in marking different grammatical relations. There are plural particles on nouns, approximative particles on numerals, and adverbial particles on manner adverbs.[1]:100 All particles are postpositional and can be divided based on function into possessive, agentive, object, instrumental, temporal, locative, ablative, comparative, comitative, and definite particles.[1]:100
Adverbial particles such as 'li31', 'ʂɿ31', and 'uɑ33' are used to derive adverbs or adverb constructions.[1]:107
Mood particles are also used to indicate mood and are used at high frequency in daily conversation, normally at the end of utterances.[1]:108 They include the interrogative particle 'mɛ53', the exhortative particle 'lɑ35', the rhetorical particle 'ɖɑ53', the countering particle 'le53', and the supplicative particle 'lie31'.[1]:108-110
Compounding
editCompounding is the primary way through which new words are formed in Anong.[1]:50 There are five primary compounding processes.[1]:50-51
There is no modified-modifying relationship between the two roots being compounded. The number of co-ordinate compounds in Anong is relatively small.[1]
lɐ31tɕɐ55
+
pʰɯn55
→
lɐ31tɕɐ55pʰɯn55
'tea' + 'circular' → 'bowl shaped tea leaves' [1]: 50
One of the roots in modified when they are combined. Most compounds in Anong are of this type.[1] The above example is modified-modifying, though the reverse is also possible.
The first element in these compounds is the noun center, and the complement is a classifier, and is technically a type of modified-modifying compound.[1] This type of compounding is relatively productive.[1]
Objects precede verbs in verb phrases in Anong, which is typical of Tibeto-Burman languages. This order is reflected in verb-object compounds.[1]
(There was a note about this on my second draft about this section needing reorganizing. I did try to address this but decided to stick with the order given in my grammar in the end.)
Four-Syllable Elaborate Expressions
editFour-syllable elaborate expressions word formation processes are exclusive to Sino-Tibetan languages, and almost all Sino-Tibetan languages have them. They are very productive in Anong, as a result of expressive storytelling.[1]:51
There are five types of these expressions.
| Type | Instantiation | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| AABB | mɑŋ31mɑŋ31ȵim31ȵim31 | 'bumpy'; 'rough' |
| ABAB | bɑ31tɕhɑ55bɑ31tɕhɑ55 | 'whisper in someone's ear' |
| ABAC | kɑ31thɑŋ35kɑ31phɑŋ35 | 'high and low, from top to bottom' |
| ABCB | khɑ55gɑm55mɑ31gɑm55 | describes the unhappy state of indeterminacy |
| ABCD | ɑ31khuɑ31ʔo55tɕho31 | 'each look after one's self' |
Full reduplication is found in nouns, verbs, adverbs, and especially on adjectives in Anong but is not productive.[1]:52 However, it still is used for word formation, for example, with adverbials that turn adjectives into adverbs.
(pʰɯ31 is the masculine gender affix. PRT indicates a particle. ADV is the adverbial.[1]:99)
Similarly:
ŋ31
'he'
ɐ31ɲɐ̃31
'light'
-ɐ31ɲɐ̃31
-Reduplication
uɐ33li31
ADV
tʰi31zɿm33
'speak'
-ɛ31
-IND
'He speaks softly' [1]: 99
(IND marks the indicative mood.[1]:85)
In these cases, when adjectives are used as adverbials, the adjective is reduplicated and the adverbial suffix ADV is added to indicate the new function. This is an instance of affixation and other morphological processes combining for one function.
Adjectives and adverbs are also reduplicated to indicate intensity, and some reduplications occur in tandem with additional modifications like tonal changes, vowel changes, or final changes.[1]:95,100 The adjective 'yellow', for example, 'phu55' becomes 'very yellow' when reduplicated into 'phu55phu55'.
Imitation
editSome words are created through the imitation of sounds in the real world.[1] Some animals are named after the sounds that they make. For example, 'mã35', which is the Anong word for 'moo' is also the word for 'cow'.[1]:53 Sounds taken from imitations of animals and motions are often used as adverbs.[1]
Syntax
editWord Order
editThe basic word order in Anong is SOV, as illustrated by the following three sentences.[1]:113
(IND marks the indicative mood.[1]:85)
ŋ31ɳɯŋ55
'they'
kʰɛn33
'vegetable'
vɛn35
'buy'
-ɛ55
IND
-uɑ55
FUT.HS
'They are going to buy vegetables (hearsay).' [1]: 80
(FUT.HS is future hearsay.)
(DEF is the definite marker. AGT is the agentive marker. OBJ is the object marker. 1SG indicates first person singular.)
However, Anong has no passive voice, and the order of the object and subject is flexible when the subject and object are grammatically marked, although it is not necessarily the case that they are always marked.[1]:114 For illustration, the third example could be re-written as follows:
Attributive Markers
editAnong has two kinds of attributive markers.[1]:114 Nouns and pronouns acting as attributives occur before the head noun, usually without the possessive marker. Adjectives, numerals, and classifiers acting as attributives occur after the head noun.[1]:114-115
ŋ31
'he'
pronoun
ɑ31khɑŋ31
'grandfather'
noun
gɑ31mɯ31
'clothes'
head noun
sɛ55
'new'
adjective
nɑ55
'that'
ɑ31ȵi55
'two'
numeral
thɑm55
CLF
classifier
'those two articles of clothing of his grandfather's' [1]: 115
Sometimes adjectives with two or more syllables or nominalized adjectives that are used as modifiers occur before the head noun.[1]:115
Adverbials
editAdverbials usually occur before the predicate but can come after. Adverbials normally come after any other elements that are before the predicate. Temporal and locative adverbials have flexible word order and can come before the predicate and after the object, after the subject and before the object, or after the subject.[1]:116
dɛ55ʂɿ55khɑ55
'tonight'
temporal adverbial
ŋ31ɳɯŋ55
'they'
thɑ31luʔ55
'maybe'
adverbial
tɕhim31
'house'
mɑ31
NEG
adverbial
ʈhɑŋ33iɯŋ55
'return'
'Tonight they may not return home.' [1]: 116
(NEG marks negation.)
Adverbials occurring after predicates are rare.[1]:116
Sentence Structure
editSimple sentences are categorized based on structure and mood. The categories of simple sentences include declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, requests, exclamations, and estimations.[1]:117-118
Complex sentences are divided into two main categories: compound sentences and sentences with a main-subordinate clause structure. Compound sentences include contrastive compounds, relative contrast compounds, and successive compounds.[1]:118-121
ɑ31io31
'I'
ɑ55
DEF
tɑ55-o55
big-NOM
thi55
one
nɯ31
CLF
vɛn33
buy
thɑm55-ɛ31
CONT-IND
dʑɯŋ55
ASP
ɑ31
ASP
ŋ̩31
he
ɑ55
DEF
tɕhɛm31-o55
small-NOM
thi55
one
nɯ31
CLF
vɛn33
buy
thɑm55-ɛ31
CONT-IND
dʑɯ31
ASP
ɑ31.
ASP
‘I bought a big one and he bought a small one.’ [1]: 119
mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ31
'Mùgǔjiǎ'
iɛ55khɑ31
'here'
khɯŋ31ne55
ABL
tʂhɿ55
'relative'
thi31ɹɯm33
'far'
ɛ31,
IND
mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ31
'Mùgǔjiǎ'
khɯŋ31ne55
ABL
duŋ35ɕuɑ55
'Gòng Mt.'
khɑ31
LOC
bɑ31ʂɿ31
'very'
thi31ɹɯm55
'far'
ɛ31.
IND
‘It is relatively far from here to Mùgǔjiǎ, and it is even farther from Mùgǔjiǎ to the Gòngshān area.’ [1]: 119
ŋ̩31
'he'
sɑŋ55
'strength'
bɑ31ʂɿ31
'very'
ɑ31nɛ55,
'have',
thi31
'one'
ɕɑ55
'hundred'
gɑm55
'catty'
dɑ31ʈhɑŋ55
'excess'
gɯ55
'also'
zɿ35
carry.on.back
dʑo31
can
ɛ31.
IND
'He is very strong, and can carry over a hundred catties (= 50 kilograms) on his back.' [1]: 119
Main-subordinate clause sentences include transitional, cause-and-result, conditional, concessive, temporal sequence, and complex relation sentences.[1]:118-121
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db Sun, Hongkai. (2009). A grammar of Anong : language death under intense contact. Liu, Guangkun., Li, Fengxiang., Thurgood, Ela., Thurgood, Graham. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789047430308. OCLC 607555112.
- ^ a b c "Anong". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-04-23.