Wikipedia

Vientiane

(Redirected from Vientiane Municipality)
This article is about the urban center and city. For the mueang, see Kingdom of Vientiane. For city proper, see Vientiane Prefecture. For the province, see Vientiane province.

Vientiane[a] is the capital and largest city of Laos. Comprising the five urban districts of Vientiane Prefecture, the city is located on the banks of the Mekong, right at the border with Thailand. Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 840,000 as of the 2023 Census.

Vientiane
ວຽງຈັນ
Capital city
ນະຄອນຫຼວງ​ວຽງຈັນ​
From top, left to right: Patuxai; view of Vientiane from the Patuxai; Wat Si Saket; Pha That Luang
Map
Vientiane is located in Laos
Vientiane
Vientiane
Vientiane is located in Southeast Asia
Vientiane
Vientiane
Vientiane is located in Asia
Vientiane
Vientiane
Coordinates: 17°59′N 102°38′E / 17.98°N 102.63°E / 17.98; 102.63
Country Laos
PrefectureVientiane Prefecture
Settled9th century[1]
Government
 • MayorAthsphangthong Siphandone
Area
 • Total
3,920 km2 (1,510 sq mi)
Elevation
174 m (570 ft)
Population
 (2023[2])
 • Total
840,940
 • Density210/km2 (560/sq mi)
GDP
[3]
 • TotalUS$ 3 billion (2022)
 • Per capitaUS$3,600 (2022)
Time zoneUTC+7 (ICT)
This article contains Lao text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Lao script.

Vientiane is the home of the most significant national monuments such as Pha That Luang, a national symbol of Laos and an icon of Buddhism in Laos. Other significant Buddhist temples can be found there as well, such as Haw Phra Kaew, which formerly housed the Emerald Buddha.

Etymology

edit

"Vientiane" is the French spelling derived from the Lao Viangchan /wíaŋ tɕàn/.[4] The name was previously written "ວຽງຈັນທນ໌" (in Thai, เวียงจันทน์) but now usually written "ວຽງຈັນ". In Lao, viang (ວຽງ) refers to a 'walled city' whereas chan (ຈັນ, previously ຈັນທນ໌) derives from Sanskrit candana (चन्दन, /t͡ɕand̪ana/), 'sandalwood' and can be translated as the 'walled city of sandalwood'. Some Laotians mistakenly believe it refers to the 'walled city of the moon' as chan can also represent 'moon', although this was previously distinguished in writing as "ຈັນທຣ໌".[4][5] Other romanisations include "Viangchan" and "Wiangchan".[6]

History

edit
 
Ban Tha Lat, Mon inscription (9th CE), was found in 1968, in an area where other pieces of archaeological evidence testified to an ancient Mon presence. It is now at Ho Phra Kaeo Museum, Vientiane, Laos[7][8]
 
Buddha sculptures at Pha That Luang
 
Haw Phra Kaew or Temple of the Emerald Buddha

Dvaravati city state kingdoms

edit

By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet (modern Kalasin, northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region.[9][10][11][12]: 6, 7 [13][14]

Myth

edit

The great Laotian epic, the Phra Lak Phra Lam, claims that Prince Thattaradtha founded the city when he left the legendary Lao kingdom of Muong Inthapatha Maha Nakhone because he was denied the throne in favor of his younger brother. Thattaradtha founded a city called Maha Thani Si Phan Phao on the western banks of the Mekong River; this city was said to have later become today's Udon Thani, Thailand. One day, a seven-headed Naga told Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river opposite Maha Thani Si Phan Phao. The prince called this city Chanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud; which was said to be the predecessor of modern Vientiane.[citation needed]

Contrary to the Phra Lak Phra Lam, most historians believe Vientiane was an early Mon settlement, which later came under the domination of the Khmer Empire. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the time when the Lao and Thai people are believed to have entered Southeast Asia from Southern China, the few remaining Mon and Khmer in the area moved or assimilated into the Lao civilization, which would soon overtake the area.[citation needed]

Khmer domination

edit

The earliest reference of the name Vientiane can be seen on a Vietnamese inscription of Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ, dated 1159 during the Khmer-Viet conflict. The inscription says that in 1135, Văn Đan (Vientiane), a vassal of Zhenla (Khmer Empire), invaded Nghe An, but was repelled by the Duke; the Duke led an army chased the invaders as far as Vũ Ôn? (unattested), and then returned with captives.[15]: 65  This name may have traced it origin to Wèndān, a supposedly kingdom located in the Khorat Plateau, mentioned by a ninth-century Chinese writer described a trade route which started at Hanoi and crossed the western mountains to Wèndān.

Lan Xang and French colonial rule

edit

In 1354, when Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang,[16]: 223  Vientiane became an important administrative city, even though it was not made the capital. King Setthathirath officially established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion.[17] When Lan Xang fell apart in 1707, it became an independent Kingdom of Vientiane. In 1779, it was conquered by the Siamese general Phraya Chakri and made a vassal of Siam.

When King Anouvong raised an unsuccessful rebellion, it was obliterated by Siamese armies in 1827. The city was burned to the ground and was looted of nearly all Laotian artifacts, including Buddha statues and people. Vientiane was in great disrepair, depopulated and disappearing into the forest when the French arrived. It eventually passed to French rule in 1893. It became the capital of the French protectorate of Laos in 1899. During the French colonial period, the city was rebuilt and various Buddhist temples such as Pha That Luang, Haw Phra Kaew were repaired.

During French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which resulted in 53% of the population of Vientiane being Vietnamese in the year 1943.[18] As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas (i.e. the Vientiane Plain, the Savannakhet region, and the Bolaven Plateau), which was only interrupted by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.[18] If this plan had been implemented, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.[18]

During World War II, Vientiane fell with little resistance and was occupied by Japanese forces, under the command of Sako Masanori.[19] On 9 March 1945, French paratroopers arrived and reoccupied the city on 24 April 1945.[20]: 736 

Independence

edit

The city became the national capital of the newly independent Lao state in 1953.

As the Laotian Civil War broke out between the Royal Lao Government and the Pathet Lao, Vientiane became unstable. In August 1960, Kong Le seized the capital and insisted that Souvanna Phouma become prime minister. In mid-December, Phoumi Nosavan then seized the capital, overthrew the Phouma Government, and installed Boun Oum as prime minister. In mid-1975, Pathet Lao troops moved towards the city and Americans began evacuating the capital. On 23 August 1975, a contingent of 50 Pathet Lao women symbolically liberated the city.[20] On 2 December 1975, the communist party of the Pathet Lao took over Vientiane, defeated the Kingdom of Laos, and renamed the country the Lao People's Democratic Republic, which ended the Laotian Civil War. The next day, an Insurgency in Laos began in the jungle, with the Pathet Lao fighting factions of Hmong and royalists.

Vientiane was the host of the 2009 Southeast Asian Games. Eighteen competitions were dropped from the previous games held in Thailand, due to Laos' landlocked borders and the lack of adequate facilities in Vientiane.

Geography

edit

Vientiane is on a bend of the Mekong River, at which point it forms the border with Thailand. The city government administers the five urban districts of the Vientiane Prefecture.

Climate

edit

Vientiane features a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons. Vientiane’s dry season spans from November through March. April marks the onset of the wet season which in Vientiane lasts about seven months. Vientiane tends to be very hot and humid throughout the course of the year, though temperatures in the city tend to be somewhat cooler during the dry season than the wet season. The lowest recorded temperature was 2.4 °C or 36.3 °F in January 1924, and the highest was 42.6 °C or 108.7 °F in April 2024.

Climate data for Vientiane (1991–2020, extremes 1907–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.0
(96.8) 		38.0
(100.4) 		40.2
(104.4) 		42.6
(108.7) 		42.5
(108.5) 		39.5
(103.1) 		38.2
(100.8) 		37.8
(100.0) 		37.5
(99.5) 		36.8
(98.2) 		36.0
(96.8) 		36.0
(96.8) 		42.6
(108.7)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 29.0
(84.2) 		31.0
(87.8) 		33.4
(92.1) 		34.8
(94.6) 		33.6
(92.5) 		32.6
(90.7) 		31.8
(89.2) 		31.4
(88.5) 		31.7
(89.1) 		31.7
(89.1) 		30.8
(87.4) 		28.9
(84.0) 		31.7
(89.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.9
(73.2) 		24.8
(76.6) 		27.4
(81.3) 		29.1
(84.4) 		28.7
(83.7) 		28.4
(83.1) 		27.9
(82.2) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.2
(81.0) 		25.5
(77.9) 		22.9
(73.2) 		26.7
(80.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 18.2
(64.8) 		19.3
(66.7) 		21.7
(71.1) 		24.2
(75.6) 		25.0
(77.0) 		25.4
(77.7) 		25.3
(77.5) 		25.0
(77.0) 		24.6
(76.3) 		23.9
(75.0) 		21.5
(70.7) 		19.2
(66.6) 		22.8
(73.0)
Record low °C (°F) 2.4
(36.3) 		7.6
(45.7) 		11.7
(53.1) 		13.8
(56.8) 		19.1
(66.4) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.5
(67.1) 		20.0
(68.0) 		18.8
(65.8) 		12.9
(55.2) 		8.9
(48.0) 		5.0
(41.0) 		2.4
(36.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 7.4
(0.29) 		16.8
(0.66) 		43.8
(1.72) 		89.4
(3.52) 		225.6
(8.88) 		263.8
(10.39) 		299.8
(11.80) 		340.8
(13.42) 		265.0
(10.43) 		87.4
(3.44) 		15.4
(0.61) 		5.0
(0.20) 		1,663.2
(65.48)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 2 2 5 7 15 18 20 21 17 8 2 1 119
Average relative humidity (%) 70 68 66 69 78 82 82 84 83 78 72 70 75
Mean monthly sunshine hours 221.0 214.7 209.2 213.9 188.8 140.7 116.0 124.3 157.7 209.5 225.3 224.9 2,246
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization,[21] Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes 1907–1990),[22] Pogoda.ru.net,[23] The Yearbook of Indochina (1939–1940)[24]
Source 2: NOAA (humidity 1961–1990),[25] Extreme Temperature Around The World [26]

Tourism

edit
 
Wat Si Muang
 
Buddha Park

The capital attracts many tourists to its many temples and Buddhist monuments. A popular attraction for foreign visitors is Pha That Luang, an important national cultural monument of Laos and one of its best known stupas. It was originally built in 1566 by King Setthathirath and was restored in 1953. The golden stupa is 45 metres (148 ft) tall and is believed to contain a relic of the Buddha.[27]

Another site that is also popular amongst tourists is Wat Si Muang. The temple was built on the ruins of a Khmer Hindu shrine, the remains of which can be seen behind the ordination hall.[28] It was built in 1563 and is believed to be guarded by the spirit of a local girl, Nang Si. Legend tells that Nang Si, who was pregnant at the time, leapt to her death as a sacrifice, just as the pillar was being lowered into the hole. In front of the temple stands a statue of King Sisavang Vong.[28]

The memorial monument, Patuxai, built between 1957 and 1968, is perhaps the most prominent landmark in the city.[27] While the Arc de Triomphe in Paris inspired the architecture, the design incorporates typical Lao motifs including Kinnari, a mythical bird woman. Energetic visitors can climb to the top of the monument for a panoramic view of the city.

Buddha Park was built in 1958 by Luang Pu Bunleua Sulilat and contains a collection of Buddhist and Hindu sculptures, scattered amongst gardens and trees. The park is 28 kilometres (17 mi) south of Vientiane at the edge of the Mekong River.[29]

Vientiane is home to one of the three bowling alleys in Laos (the other two are in Luang Prabang and Pakse).

Other sites include:

 
Vientiane from Patuxai

Education

edit

The National University of Laos, one of three universities in the country, is in Vientiane.[31]

International schools include:

Broadcasting

edit

Economy

edit

Vientiane is the driving force behind economic change in Laos. In recent years, the city has experienced rapid economic growth from foreign investment.[34] In 2011, the stock exchange opened with two listed company stocks, with the cooperation of South Korea.[35]

Transportation

edit
Further information: Transportation in Laos

By bus

edit
 
Older taxis in Vientiane are being replaced by newer Chinese-made cars, like this Soueast Lioncel.[36]

There are regular bus services connecting Vientiane Bus Station with the rest of the country. In Vientiane, regular bus services around the city are provided by Vientiane Capital State Bus Enterprise.[37] These buses were set up and run with the help of the Japan International Cooperation Agency.

Daily non-stop bus services run between Vientiane and Nong Khai, Udon Thani, and Khon Kaen in Thailand.

By rail

edit
 
Vientiane railway station

The First Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge, built in the 1990s, crosses the river 18 kilometres downstream of the city of Nong Khai in Thailand, and is the major crossing between the two countries. The official name of the bridge was changed in 2007 by the addition of "First", after the Second Friendship Bridge linking Mukdahan in Thailand with Savannakhet in Laos was opened early in 2007.

A metre gauge railway link over the first bridge was formally inaugurated on 5 March 2009, previously ending at Thanaleng Railway Station, in Dongphosy village (Vientiane Prefecture), 20 km east of Vientiane.[38][39] As of November 2010, Lao officials plan to convert the station into a cargo rail terminal for freight trains, allowing cargo to be transported from Bangkok into Laos more cheaply than via road.[40] The rail link has since been extended 7.5km further into the city, to terminate at Vientiane (Khamsavath) railway station, a bigger and newer station closer to the city, with connections to the Central Bus Terminal and the Laos China Railway Station. The first passenger train arrived from Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal in Bangkok on 20 July 2024. The new station has immigration facilities, offices, shops and more platforms.

The Boten–Vientiane railway (sometimes referred to as the China–Laos railway or Laos–China railway) is a 414 kilometres (257 mi) 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge electrified railway in Laos, running between the capital Vientiane and the town of Boten on the border with China. The line was officially opened on 3 December 2021.[41]

By air

edit
 
Wattay International Airport

Vientiane is served by Wattay International Airport with international connections to other Asian destinations such as Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, South Korea, Japan and China. Lao Airlines has regular flights to several domestic destinations in the country (including several flights daily to Luang Prabang, plus a few flights weekly to other local destinations).[42] In Thailand, Udon Thani International Airport, one of Wattay's main connections, is less than 90 km distant.

Healthcare

edit

The "Centre Medical de l'Ambassade de France" is available to the foreign community in Laos. The Mahosot Hospital is an important local hospital in treating and researching diseases and is connected with the University of Oxford. In 2011 the Alliance Clinic opened near the airport, with a connection to Thai hospitals. The Setthathirat International Clinic has foreign doctors. A free, 24/7 ambulance service is provided by Vientiane Rescue, a volunteer-run rescue service established in 2010.[43]

Notable people

edit

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ /viˌɛntiˈɑːn/ vee-EN-tee-AHN; Lao: ວຽງຈັນ, Viangchan, pronounced [wíaŋ tɕàn], RTGS: Wiang Chan

References

edit
  1. ^ Lao Statistics Bureau (21 October 2016). "Results of Population and Housing Census 2015" (PDF). Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
  2. ^ Vientiane Capital
  3. ^ Vientiane Capital Records 4.83% Economic Growth in 2022
  4. ^ a b Askew, Marc; Long, Colin; Logan, William (2006). Vientiane: Transformations of a Lao Landscape. Routledge. pp. 15, 46. ISBN 978-1-134-32365-4. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  5. ^ Goscha, Christopher E.; Ivarsson, Søren (2003). Contesting Visions of the Lao Past: Laos Historiography at the Crossroads. NIAS Press. pp. 34 n.62, 204 n.18. ISBN 978-87-91114-02-1. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  6. ^ "Definition of 'Viangchan'". Collins English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2019. Viangchan in British. (ˌwiːɛŋˌtæn). noun: another spelling of Vientiane
  7. ^ Lorrillard, Michel (12 November 2019), The Diffusion of Lao Scripts (PDF), p. 6, archived (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2021, retrieved 26 February 2021
  8. ^ Mon inscription in Laos, archived from the original on 7 March 2021, retrieved 26 February 2021
  9. ^ Maha Sila Viravond. "HISTORY OF LAOS" (PDF). Refugee Educators' Network. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  10. ^ M.L. Manich. "HISTORY OF LAOS (including the history of Lonnathai, Chiangmai)" (PDF). Refugee Educators' Network. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  11. ^ Martin Stuart-Fox (6 February 2008), Historical Dictionary of Laos, Scarecrow Press, p. 328, ISBN 9780810864115, archived from the original on 24 January 2023, retrieved 26 February 2021
  12. ^ Phra Thep Rattanamoli (1976). "The That Phanom chronicle : a shrine history and its interpretation". Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  13. ^ Kislenko, Arne (2009), Culture and Customs of Laos, Bloomsbury Academic, p. 19, ISBN 9780313339776, archived from the original on 24 January 2023, retrieved 26 February 2021
  14. ^ "The Mon and Khmer Kingdoms". 31 March 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
  15. ^ Taylor, K. W. (1995). Essays Into Vietnamese Pasts. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-71899-1.
  16. ^ Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  17. ^ "Vientiane marks 450 years anniversary". Archived from the original on 16 August 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  18. ^ a b c Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-59746-3. Archived from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
  19. ^ "Far East and Australasia". Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
  20. ^ a b Stuart-Fox, Martin (2002). "Laos: History". The Far East and Australasia 2003. Regional surveys of the world. Psychology Press. pp. 735–742. ISBN 9781857431339. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  21. ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  22. ^ "Klimatafel von Vientiane (Viangchan) / Laos" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
  23. ^ КЛИМАТ УЛАН-БАТОРА (in Russian). Pogoda.ru.net. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  24. ^ "The Yearbook of Indochina (1939-1940)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  25. ^ "Vientiane Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  26. ^ "January record low". Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  27. ^ a b Lao National Tourism Administration – Tourist Sites in Vientiane Capital Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ a b "Wat Si Muang". Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  29. ^ "Buddha Park – Vientiane – Laos – Asia for Visitors". Archived from the original on 1 June 2015. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  30. ^ "China Gives Southeast Asia's Poorest First Time Access to Consumer Goods – China Briefing News". China Briefing News. 23 January 2008. Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  31. ^ "National University of Laos (NUOL)". National University of Laos (NUOL). NUOL. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  32. ^ "Lycée français international de Vientiane Josué-Hoffet". AEFE. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  33. ^ "China Radio International". Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
  34. ^ Work begins on major new Vientiane shopping centre | Lao Voices Archived 3 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  35. ^ "Laos stocks soar on debut – yes, both of them". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
  36. ^ Matthias Gasnier (13 August 2012). "Laos 2012 Update: Chinese models keep spreading". bestsellingcarsblog.com. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  37. ^ "Timetables". Vientiane Capital State Bus Enterprise. VCSBE. Archived from the original on 1 June 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  38. ^ "Inaugural train begins Laos royal visit". Railway Gazette International. 5 March 2009. Archived from the original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2009.
  39. ^ Andrew Spooner (27 February 2009). "First train to Laos". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  40. ^ Rapeepat Mantanarat (9 November 2010). "Laos rethinks rail project". TTR Weekly. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  41. ^ "中老铁路今日通车-图片新闻-中华人民共和国交通运输部". www.mot.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
  42. ^ "Route Map". Lao Airlines. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  43. ^ "About". Vientiane Rescue. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.

Further reading

edit
  • Askew, Marc, William Stewart Logan, and Colin Long. Vientiane: Transformations of a Lao Landscape. London: Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-0-415-33141-8
  • Sharifi et al., Can master planning control and regulate urban growth in Vientiane, Laos?. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.07.014
  • Flores, Penelope V. Good-Bye, Vientiane: Untold Stories of Filipinos in Laos. San Francisco, CA: Philippine American Writers and Artists, Inc, 2005. ISBN 978-0-9763316-1-2
  • Renaut, Thomas, and Arnaud Dubus. Eternal Vientiane. City heritage. Hong Kong: Published by Fortune Image Ltd. for Les Editions d'Indochine, 1995.
  • Schrama, Ilse, and Birgit Schrama. Buddhist Temple Life in Laos: Wat Sok Pa Luang. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2006. ISBN 978-974-524-073-5
  • Women's International Group Laos. Vientiane Guide. Vientiane: Women's International Group, 1993.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vientiane&oldid=1260731061"