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The project page has a template that seems to have unrelated material added. I'd like to restore the content, but I can't find where the text in the template can be edited. Sjö (talk) 05:43, 30 January 2015 (UTC)

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Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format. DRAGON BOOSTER ★ 06:00, 16 December 2016 (UTC).

Sangtam Nagas by Imsu. j

THE PEOPLE OF SANGTAM Introduction The people of Sangtam are one of the indigenous tribals of Nagaland. They have been practicing the tribal religion until the advent of Christianity. Traditionally, they were known by their head hunting practices, which added prestige and fame to men’s life. However, with the advent of Christianity the local believers became active in their religion. As a result, the population is predominantly Christian. The people of Sangtam once lived by themselves in a shell of isolation. They viewed anything that came from outside with suspicion and hostility. Today, Christianity has brought great transformation in the region and the people are reaching out for the benefits of modern life. One of the main problems that the people of Sangtam face today is the geographical locations of the region and the lack of proper written documents. This chapter will give a short survey on the Sangtam people and the advent of Christianity in the region with a, brief profile of the Sangtam Nagas (2.1), locating their geographical settlements (2.1.1), tracing their origin (2.1.2), through various assumptions and theories. It will also give a short survey on their life before Christianity (2.2), their socio-cultural life (2.2.1), and their source of learning centre for community life (2.2.2), as how bachelor’s dormitory (2.2.2.1), and women’s dormitory (2.2.2.2), had an impact on the life of their young people their cultural life (2.2.3), marriage (2.2.3.1), inheritance (2.2.3.2), festivals (2.2.3.3), and religious life (2.2.4). The belief in supreme being (2.2.4.1), superstitions (2.2.4.2), and rituals and sacrifices (2.2.4.3), played an important part in their society. Then this chapter focuses on the introduction of Christianity in the Sangtam region (2.3), the advent of christianity (2.3.1), the struggles of first Sangtam Christian (2.3.2), the silent period (2.3.3), how the Ao Nagas and American mission made a positive impact in shaping the society of Sangtam areas (2.3.4), and the establishment and rapid growth of the Churches in the region (2.3.5). 2.1 A Brief Profile of the Sangtam Nagas The people of Sangtams or Sangtam Nagas are one among the sixteen major indigenous tribes of Nagaland. Due to the geographical locations, they are also known as United Sangtam. Being one among the citizens of the people of Nagaland, they are non-class, non-caste people, autonomous and freedom loving hill-dwellers. In the early days they were noted for headhunting and animistic elements. Headhunting was a socio-cultural, religious and political practice conferred on the warriors as degree of social prestige and popularity. J.H. Hutton (1885 –1968) mentioned that human head ensured good crop, stimulation and fertility. Like many other tribal groups in Northeast India; they practice jhum, or shifting cultivation. In keeping with their importance of agriculture, several festivals are celebrated to mark sowing, transplanting, harvesting etc.... Sangtam are one of the important tribes of Nagaland. They are also one the major tribes in the multilingual of Tuensang and Kiphere districts. According to some oral tradition, they have come to their present place following migration from Burma. As with other languages, Sangtam also exhibits some variation from one region to another. For pedagogical purposes the Longkhim variety is considered standard Sangtam. Presently, Sangtam is taught and used as a medium up to class IV in all government schools. From 1965 onwards the Directorate of Education has been publishing textbooks in Sangtam. 2.1.1 Geographical location The Sangtams are one among the sixteen major tribes in Nagaland. They occupy two different regions in the districts, namely Northern Sangtam and Eastern Sangtam. The popular traditions hold that, they migrated to their present habitat in sometimes around 13th century CE. Geographically, towards the eastern part of Nagaland, under Kiphere district, it is bounded by Pochery in the south, Myanmar in the east, Yimchunger Tribe in the west and Sumi in the west. The northern part of Sangtam region includes the Longkhim-Chare sub-division of Tuensang district. The area is bounded by Chang in the east, Ao in the west, Phom in the north and Sumi in the north. It has an area of 1030.5 square kilometres. The highest range in the area is Helipong; it is 1,676.40 meter above sea the level. Geologically the land and the area are composed of rocks overlaid by tertiary strata. The hillsides are covered with green forest, roads running through the hills and mountains. They are united under the common banner called “United Sangtam.” There are 65 villages among the Sangtams, 24 villages under Longkhim-Chare sub-division and 38 villages under Kiphere district. There are seven government administrative towns under united Sangtam jurisdiction. During the recent years, another part of Sangtam land has been recognized under Dimapur district namely Tsithrongse, Sangtamtila and Murise villages. 2.1.2 The origin and nomenclature of Sangtam The origin and the nomenclature of Sangtam have given rise to some considerable speculation with different theories, each with more or less common foundation but with unanimity of opinion. The first opinion is that the word ‘Sangtam’ came from the word ‘Singtang’, which means ‘wooden floor’. Thus, when they were asked about their identity, they felt it proper to identify themselves by the pattern of the houses in which they lived. Therefore, they came to be known as Singtang. The word ‘Singtang’ is a combination of two syllables. “Sing” stands for wood, “Tang” stands for floor. When these two syllables are combined it forms Singtang, which was later changed to Sangtam and they are known by that name today. There is another famous oral tradition which believes that, a group of people from ‘Shan’ or ‘Siam’ migrated from Myanmar and Thailand to the present location. The neighbouring tribe of Yimchunger called them as ‘Sungdang,’ and the tribe of Chakhesang called them as ‘Sultan’. Thus, the name Sangtam had developed at the later stage. According to B.B. Ghosh, the Sangtams say that they came from the east. Therefore, it appears that they came from Myanmar and Thailand. Another popular oral tradition is that the Ao’s were believed to have originated from Long Thüroh (Six Stones) which is at Chungliyangti (a Sangtam village). Some oral tradition holds that, the ancestors of Sangtam came out of those six stones. Hence, with all these different theories the name Sangtam is used till today. There is no leading proof to the exact origin of the name and the tribe, due to the lack of written historical records. However, on the basis of the similarities of the nature and culture it can be observed that, the Sangtam tribe belongs to the Indo-Mongolian family like other Naga tribes. They are medium in size and height, high cheek bones, little broad nose and fine features. They are free and frank, friendly, brave, generous, independent, loyal, hardworking, simple, cheerful and lovable with a strong sense of humour and lovers of songs. 2.2 Life During pre-Christian era Before the arrival of Christianity the primitive Sangtam were animists and the worshippers of different kinds of spirits and unknown gods. Their traditional faith was characterized by fear and innumerable superstitions. They also observed various kinds of gennas and taboos in order to appease the spirits and to attain good life in the world. They lived a confined life in the constant fear of enemies and spirits. They were content with their limited resources available within their respective village. The land was left unexplored by the civilized and it was filled with barbaric activities due to head hunting and lack of knowledge on the importance of human value. They lived without proper and regular inter-village road and communication. There was also a thick forest where ferocious animals and wild beasts were found, and the lives of the villages were guided by the superstitions and fear. However, the advent of Christianity exposed them to the world outside. Modern education has brought a massive change in their culture including dress pattern, speech and behaviour. 2.2.1 The socio-cultural life The people of Sangtam maintain a strong community life in the form of a village and society as a whole. The village has its own territory which is regarded as a free state of its own. The community maintains a very strong and close bond of relationship. They have a strong belief in a casteless society. The individuals have no existence apart from the community. There is no distinction, as everyone is treated equal. “There has never been an instance whereby a particular tribe or clan has proved superior to another. There was nothing such as original or duplicate Nagas, nor are there pure or impure Naga.” The relationship of their community life can be seen during the times of calamities, sickness or death in the family. They share the times of joys and disasters together as a community. If a person dies in a family, the whole community of the village as well as the well-wishers from the neighbouring village would mourn with the deceased family. The community shows their concern towards a sick person by sharing money, foods, firewood, fetching water, cleaning their or harvesting their fields etc…. R. R. Shimray writes, “…they work in group, eat in group. There is no individual cultivation or harvest, no individual house building, no feast of merit by individual alone and no wooing of girls individually. All things are done in group and in full presence of entire community, the individuals has (sic) no existence apart from community.” It can be observed that they are also generous and kind to the visitors, showing hospitality in their best possible manner. J.H. Hutton wrote in one of his expedition to the region, “On the way we passed through Honronre [sic] Hurongrü (one of the sangtam village in the eastern part of Nagaland) where they gave us pig.” Their hospitality towards the visitors has been handed down from generation to generation. Culturally head hunting was part of their pride. They took away the head of their enemies as a prize of war and to mark their bravery. Kiran wrote “head hunting inspired wonderful dances as well. In fact the practice of headhunting had been the integral part of Naga life and culture.” Headhunting ended from the land of Sangtam region in 1947. They are also one of the richest and most colourful tribes with varieties of colourful dresses, folk dances, lore, tale, puppetry and festivals etc…, among the people of Nagas; they have 12 festivals of which Mongmong is considered to be the most important of all. The word “Mongmong” means “togetherness forever” and it is celebrated for six days.

2.2.2 Learning centre for community life Community life is the integral part of their society. It was being taught from the very cradle of the family as how it plays an important role in the life. Apart from the family they also maintain a strict school of learning known as ‘morung’ a dormitory for both girls and boys within each village. In the ancient days dormitory had a great significance in the life of the community. One of the most important purposes of the dormitory was to train the young people to lead an excellent and disciplined life. The dormitory was to inculcate the moral values and to keep the youths pure and free from any immoral activities. 2.2.2.1 Bachelor’s dormitory Bachelor’s dormitory known as Morung was found in almost all the Sangtam villages. It was the house of learning, built mainly for young men within the village. Every young man who has reached an adolescence age (about 15-16 years old) will not be allowed to sleep in their homes but must sleep in Morung until they get married. “It also served as a guard house and a house of recreations and learning”. The oldest men of the village were in charge of the Morung who were also their teachers. Every evening as they gather, the young men would be taught the art of every form of dances and war tactics. They were also taught the art of handicrafts, like making bamboo baskets and other bamboo works, wood carving and all other sorts of wooden handicrafts. Traditional laws, religious activities, oral traditions about the history, folklore, songs, dances and legends etc…, were taught herein. V.K Anand wrote that the Morung plays a vital role in preparing the younger generation for the post in the village council. The Morung is the club, the public school, the military centre, the hostel and meeting place for the elders. It is as well the centre for the social, religious and fulcrum of the village democracy. 2.2.2.2 Women’s dormitory Unlike the Morung, the young girls did not have a dormitory as such. However, on reaching the puberty, they no longer slept in their parent’s house. They would be sent to the house of the oldest widow in the village to learn certain art necessary for women. As they gather every evening the widows and the elderly women of the village would come and teach them the art of weaving, spinning of cottons, knitting and other handicrafts. They were also taught certain social customs and traditions, dances, songs, lore, legends, religious activities etc…, it was the learning school for every young girl of the village. 2.2.3 Cultural life Festivals, marriage and inheritance plays major role in the cultural life of the people of Sangtam. It gives them their identity and a sense of bond within the circle of their community. 2.2.3.1 Marriage Sangtam practice monogamy. If a family feels that their son is matured enough to start a family, they would arrange a relative or a family friend to act as a middle person to propose a woman. There are certain restrictions. Marriage within the same “clan” is prohibited and punishable by exiling from the village, family and clan. They are also restricted from marring their nieces and nephews, or if they are related by family in laws. There is no dowry system rather one has to pay the price of a pride known as mi. It varies from person to person and family to family. A groom has to give animal such as mithuns, buffaloes, cows, pigs or money etc…, as this tradition safeguards the family from divorce. Apart from this mi the groom also gives dao (machete), shawls, or little amount of money to the bride’s parents on the day of engagement. In case the engagement is broken, the stuffs are returned to the boy’s family. 2.2.3.2 Inheritance Those were the days when Sangtam maintained a strict patriarchal society. According to their culture, the family inheritance goes only to the male children of the family. When a father dies, his possessions: both movable and immovable properties were distributed among his sons. This was done under the surveillance of village councils. The mother would receive one third of the movable properties and the parental home were given to the youngest son. However, if a person dies without a son, then his properties are passed on to his male siblings or the nearest male relative. Women do not inherit anything they neither share in paying the debts left behind by the deceased. However, things are changing now. Today many families and individuals have started sharing properties with the women. However, Sangtam Nagas is a patriarchal society. 2.2.3.3 Festivals The religious enthusiasm of the Sangtam is expressed in a number of festivals which mark different stages of the agricultural calendar. Sangtam mainly observes their festivals on two accounts, to appeal to the spirit for the fertility of the land and to share the joy of harvest. Every year, as the time of festivals approach it was observed with very strict rules of taboos and religious rites. It was the time when the whole community would gather and have a merry feast together. On those days they would wear their best and colourful traditional attires, and spends the occasion with dances, folk songs, merry making and exchange of gifts to one another. One of their most important festivals is Mongmong meaning “togetherness forever”. It is celebrated for six days from 1st to 6th September. This is the season when the crops in the field are ready for the harvest. On this occasion, they worship the gods of house and the “three cooking stones of the kitchen.” There is another festival called ‘hünapongpi’ which means the festivals of ‘cock’, celebrated specially in the Northern part of Sangtam. They observe this festival for two days, 16-17th August. This is a festival before the harvest to appeal the spirit of fertility and blessings. On the first day every house would bring their best cock and organize cock fight boasting about whose cock is the biggest and strongest. On the second day they observed the day with fest and merry making, exchanging gifts to one another. There is another festival known as the “feast of merit”. This feast is offered by any person who is wealthy and can afford to do so. One does this in order to gain higher and better social status among the community. Mithuns, buffaloes, cows, pigs and other animals are killed during this ceremony. After the ceremony is over, the family expects the gods to bless them. However, if the ceremony is not performed or observed in the right way then, a curse will be inflicted upon the entire family even up to the extent of death instead of blessings. Therefore, this kind of ceremony was done with strict taboos and rituals. It can be observed that their festivals are both joyous celebration and also religious invocation to serve gods, to serve others and to have a wider community fellowship. 2.2.4 Religious life. The religious life of the people before the arrival of Christianity was infested with many false superstations, taboos, rituals and sacrifices in order to appeas many unknown spirits and gods. They believed in magic, divinations, dreams and omens. They mainly believed in three gods, one supreme god who created everything who has the control over death and life of a human being and the universe and two lesser gods.

2.2.4.1 The belief in supreme being.

The ancestors of Sangtam believed in the existence of one supreme being called “lijaba” the creator of the world through whom all blessings come. Thumra wrote, Lijaba is the creator, the sustainer, the dispenser of the universe. He is the father of gods of human. He upholds the moral laws. He is the judge of human both now and in after life and therefore, all human are accountable to him for their deeds, for he is the upholder of the future of all mankind. Lijaba was considered as the chief God of all, and the creator of the whole universe who controls every activities of the universe. It was he, who provided every good thing to human beings and the universe. Therefore, they worshipped him and offered certain sacrifices to please him so that he may bless them in return. Spirit plays a very important role in most tribal religion. The spirit world is real to the tribals. They believe in variety of spirits which inhabits stones, trees, houses and mountains. Thus, beside Lijaba there were also two lesser and benevolent gods and spirit. They were kuh tsingrang (house god) and luh tsingrang (field god). They worshipped the kuh tsingrang for it protected them form all kinds of harms and sickness etc…, by offering cooked rice, best portion from the meat, rice beer etc…, with proper rituals during the festivals. They worshipped luh tsingrang for it protects and blesses their rice fields from certain destructions. The spirit not only guards their fields but it also gives them bountiful harvest. Therefore they worshipped the spirits by offering certain sacrifices and foods as well. 2.2.4.2 Superstitions The people of Sangtam uphold and practiced numerous superstations. One of the striking features is the belief of life after death. They believe that when a person dies, his/her spirit goes to a place where the spirit of death gathers and their spirit return to the living family in a form of an eagle. They believe that, any natural calamities, accidents and any kinds of unusual incidents are caused by the malevolent spirit, thus they worshipped those spirit in order to avert all those misfortunes. In some cases if a person gets sick, they would go to the place where the victim has last visited and offer certain sacrifices, as they believed that, the person’s spirit is being held there by the evil spirit. Therefore, inorder to propitiate the evil spirit, the blood of animals like cows, pigs or a cock were offered. If the person gets healed then their rituals worked well and if the person dies then, they believed that that the spirit was too cruel. Such practices are being carried out by some people even today. 2.2.4.3 Rituals and sacrifices The offering of sacrifices was a very important aspect for the people of Sangtam. Offering of sacrifices was one of their most practiced religious activities. Certain rituals were practiced during birth of a child, marriage, sickness, festivals, death and constructions of a new houses etc…. There were also community rituals which were performed during the seasons of cultivations. It was done mainly to appease the benevolent and malevolent deities. Those religious rites and duties were carried out and performed by specially designated priest known as (bebürü) of the village community or the oldest man in the clan. The priest acted as the mediator between the gods and the people. Thus, every sacrifice and offering on the special community occasions was offered by him. The religious practices were all centred on agricultural seasons. Festivals and non-working days were connected with religion. Sacrifices were also offered individually in each homestead to the family ancestors by the head of the family. For the people of Sangtam their ancestors are always within the living that are often thought to encircle the living like a cloud, caring for them, punishing them when they bring disgrace to their lineage and negotiate with the gods and spirits for them. In turn these ancestors must be fed and revered. They also use sacrifices at least once in a year and whenever an unexpected misfortunes is ascribed to the displeasure of those spirits. Though, all these religious practices were all centred on agricultural seasons and festivals, yet they have a deep religious significance. In spite of changing their faith and embracing a new religion one cannot deny the continuity that persists among the people which is permitted by the new religion. Traditional festivals, symbols and meanings of the nature continue to have an important place in the present Sangtam tribal community. The importance and awareness of such festivals appear to be increasing and almost on every occasion and function people are asked to wear traditional dress, perform traditional dances and sing traditional songs. There is a conscious effort from the young to revive and preserve their culture. It can be observed that, Christianity has largely eliminated animistic belief though many aspects of their traditional culture still persist. The pagan ideas, has become incorporated into Christian practices in many instances. They often co-exist in mutually accommodating relationships. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Imsujinger (talk • contribs) 15:36, 29 December 2016 (UTC)