Xiao'erjing (lit. 'children's script'), often shortened to Xiaojing (lit. 'minor script', the 'original script'[a] being the Perso-Arabic script), is a Perso-Arabic script used to write Sinitic languages, including Lanyin Mandarin, Zhongyuan Mandarin, Northeastern Mandarin, and Dungan.[2][3][4][5] It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to Islam in China—mostly the Hui, but also the Dongxiang and the Salar—and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia. Orthographic reforms introduced the Latin script and later the Cyrillic script to the Dungan language, which continue to be used today.
| Xiao'erjing | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 A Chinese–Arabic–Xiao'erjing dictionary | |||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 小兒經 | ||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 小儿经 | ||||||||||||||
| Xiao'erjing | [1] ثِیَوْعَرݣٍْ | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | children's script | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| Xiaojing | |||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 小經 | ||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 小经 | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | minor script | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| Xiaojing | |||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 消經 | ||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 消经 | ||||||||||||||
| Xiao'erjing | [1] ثِیَوْݣٍْ | ||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | revised script | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
Xiao'erjing is written from right to left, like other Perso-Arabic writing systems.
Xiao'erjing is unusual among Arabic script-based writing systems in that all vowels, long and short, are explicitly notated with diacritics, making it an abugida. Some other Arabic-based writing systems in China, such as the Uyghur Arabic alphabet, use letters and not diacritics to mark short vowels.
Nomenclature
editXiao'erjing does not have a single, standard name. In Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, and eastern Shaanxi, as well as also Beijing, Tianjin and the northeastern provinces, the script is referred to as Xiǎo'érjīng, which when shortened becomes Xiǎojīng or Xiāojīng (the latter Xiāo has the meaning of "to review" in the aforementioned regions). In Ningxia, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, western Shaanxi and the northwestern provinces, the script is referred to as Xiǎo'érjǐn. The Dongxiang people refer to it as the "Dongxiang script" or the "Huihui script"; The Salar refer to it as the "Salar script"; The Dungan of Central Asia used a variation of Xiao'erjing called the "Hui script", before being made to abandon the Arabic script for Latin and Cyrillic. According to A. Kalimov, a famous Dungan linguist, the Dungan of the former Soviet Union called this script щёҗин (şjoⱬin, 消經).
Origins
editSince the arrival of Islam in Tang dynasty China beginning in the mid-7th century, many Arabic and Persian speaking people migrated into China. Centuries later, these peoples assimilated with the native Han Chinese, forming the Hui ethnicity of today. Many Chinese Muslim students attended madrasas to study Classical Arabic and the Qur'an. Because these students had a very basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated, they started using the Arabic script for Chinese. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of suras. This method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent. Currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiao'erjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of Daxue Xixiang Mosque [de] in Xi'an. The stele shows inscribed Qur'anic verses in Arabic as well as a short note of the names of the inscribers in Xiao'erjing. The stele was done in the year AH 740 in the Islamic calendar (between July 9, 1339, and June 26, 1340). Some old Xiao'erjing manuscripts (along with other rare texts including those from Dunhuang) are preserved in the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Russia.
Usage
editXiao'erjing can be divided into two sets, the "Mosque system" and the "Daily system". The "Mosque system" is the system used by pupils and imams in mosques and madrasahs. It contains much Arabic and Persian religious lexicon, and no usage of Chinese characters. This system is relatively standardised, and could be considered a true writing system. The "Daily system" is the system used by the less educated for letters and correspondences on a personal level. Often simple Chinese characters are mixed in with the Arabic script, mostly discussing non-religious matters, and therewith relatively little Arabic and Persian loans. This practice can differ drastically from person to person. The system would be devised by the writer himself, with one's own understanding of the Arabic and Persian alphabets, mapped accordingly to one's own dialectal pronunciation. Often, only the letter's sender and the letter's receiver can understand completely what is written, while being very difficult for others to read. Unlike Hui Muslims in other areas of China, Muslims of the northwest provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu had no knowledge of the Han Kitab or Literary Chinese, they used Xiao'erjing.[6] Xiao'erjing was used to annotate foreign language Islamic documents (in languages like Persian) using the Chinese language.[7]
Xiao'erjing was used mostly by Muslims who could not read Chinese characters. It was imperfect due to various factors. The differing Chinese dialects would require multiple different depictions with Xiao'erjing. Xiao'erjing cannot display the tones present in Chinese, syllable endings are indistinguishable, i.e. xi'an and xian.[8] Xiao'erjing was much simpler than Chinese characters for representing Chinese.[9]
Modern usage
editIn recent years, the usage of Xiao'erjing is nearing extinction due to the growing Chinese economy and the improvement of Chinese character education in rural parts of the country. Chinese characters, along with pinyin, have since replaced Xiao'erjing. Since the mid-1980s, there has been much scholarly work done within and outside China concerning Xiao'erjing. On-location research has been conducted and the users of Xiao'erjing have been interviewed. Written and printed materials of Xiao'erjing were also collected by researchers, the ones at Nanjing University being the most comprehensive. Kazuhiko Machida is leading a project in Japan concerning Xiao'erjing.[10] Books are printed in Xiao'erjing.[11] In Arabic language Qur'ans, Xiao'erjing annotations are used to help women read.[12] Xiao'erjing is used to explain certain terms when used as annotations.[13] Xiao'erjing is also used to write Chinese language Qurans.[14][15]
A Dachang Hui Imam, Ma Zhenwu, wrote a Qur'an translation into Chinese including Chinese characters and Xiao'erjing.[16]
Alphabet
editXiao'erjing has 31 letters, 4 of which are used to represent vowel sounds. The 31 letters consists of 28 letters borrowed from Arabic, 4 letters borrowed from Persian along with 2 modified letters and 1 extra letter unique to Xiao'erjing.
Initials and consonants
editBelow table demonstrates the list of consonants, and cases in which two consonants represent the same initial, in the bopomofo order.[1]
| ب B b |
پ P p |
م M m |
ف F f |
د D d |
ت / ط T t |
ن N n |
ل L l |
| ق G g |
ک K k |
ح / خ H h |
ݣ (د)1 J j |
ک (ٿ)2 Q q |
ث X x |
ج Zh zh |
چ Ch ch |
| ش Sh sh |
ژ / ر R r |
ز / ظ Z z |
ڞ C c |
س / ص S s |
ی Y y |
و W w |
ء / ا / ع Glottal |
Note:
- ⟨د⟩ is more commonly used instead of ⟨ݣ⟩ in Linxia manuscripts to better closely match the local dialect's pronunciation.
- ⟨ٿ⟩ is more commonly used instead of ⟨ک⟩ in Linxia manuscripts to better closely match the local dialect's pronunciation.
Below is the list of initials and consonants used in Xiao'erjing.
| Symbol | Final–Medial–Initial | Standard Chinese | Bopomofo | Pinyin | Arabic | Persian | Example | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  (ا) |
 (ـا) |
/a/ [ɑ], [a] | ㄚ | a, a-, -a, -a- | [ʔ], [æː~aː], [ɑː] | [ʔ], [ɔ], [æ] | اَ (阿 ā) |
Vowel sound |
| 2 |  (ب) |
 (ببب) |
/p/ [p], [b]- | ㄅ | b- | [b] | [b] | بَا (爸 bà) |
|
| 3 |  (پ) |
 (پپپ) |
/pʰ/ [pʰ]- | ㄆ | p- | none | [p] | پُوَ (婆 pó) |
Borrowed from Persian |
| 4 |  (ت) |
 (تتت) |
/tʰ/ [tʰ]- | ㄊ | t- | [t] | [t] | تَا (塔 tǎ) |
Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ong, -uan, -ui, -un, -uo |
| 5 |  (ث) |
 (ثثث) |
[tɕʰ]-, [ɕ]- | ㄑ、ㄒ | x- | [θ] | [s] | ثِیَ (些 xiē) |
Historically, manuscripts have also used س and ش |
| 6 |  (ج) |
 (ججج) |
/ʈ͡ʂ/ [ʈ͡ʂ], [ɖ͡ʐ] | ㄓ | zh- | [dʒ]|[ɡ] | [dʒ] | جَ (这/這 zhè) |
Sound change occurs when representing Chinese |
| 7 |  (چ) |
 (چچچ) |
/ʈ͡ʂʰ/ [ʈ͡ʂʰ] | ㄔ | ch- | none | [tʃ] | چَ (车/車 chē) |
Borrowed from Persian |
| 8 |  (ح) |
 (ححح) |
/x/ [x]- | ㄏ | h- | [ħ] | [h] | حَ (河 hé) |
Used before syllable with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -e, -ei, -en, -eng |
| 9 |  (خ) |
 (خخخ) |
/x/ [x]- | ㄏ | h- | [x] | [x] | خُ (湖 hú) |
Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -e, -ei, -en, -eng |
| 10 |  (د) |
 (د) |
/t/ [t], [d]-; [tɕ]- | ㄉ | d- | [d] | [d] | دٍ (钉/釘 dīng) |
Used by some manuscripts to represent a few syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initial j-. More commonly "ݣ" was used |
| 11 |  (ر) |
 (ر) |
/ɻ/ [ɻ], [ʐ]- | ㄖ | r- | [r] | [ɾ] | رٍ (仍 réng) |
Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -eng, -un, -uo |
| /ɻ/ -[ɻ] | ㄦ | -r | عَر (二 èr) |
Represents the rhotic final -r sound | |||||
| 12 |  (ز) |
 (ز) |
/ʦ/ [t͡s], [d͡z]- | ㄗ | z- | [z] | [z] | زَیْ (在 zài) |
Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ong, -ui, -un, -uo "ذ" is used by some manuscripts instead |
| 13 |  (ژ) |
 (ژ) |
/ɻ/ [ɻ], [ʐ]- | ㄖ | r- | none | [ʒ] | ژَ (热/熱 rè) |
Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -eng, -un, -uo |
| 14 |  (س) |
 (سسس) |
/s/ [s]-, [ɕ]- | ㄙ | s- | [s] | [s] | سِْ (四 sì) |
Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ua, -ui, -un, -uo. Historically, manuscripts have also used this letter for Hanyu Pinyin initial x- |
| 15 |  (ش) |
 (ششش) |
/ʂ/ [ʂ]-, [ɕ]- | ㄕ | sh- | [ʃ] | [ʃ] | شِ (是 shì) |
Historically, manuscripts have also used this letter for Hanyu Pinyin initial x- |
| 16 |  (ص) |
 (صصص) |
/s/ [s]- | ㄙ | s- | [sˤ]|[sˠ] | [s] | صُوِ (岁/歲 suì) |
Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ua, -ui, -un, -uo |
| 17 |  (ڞ) |
 (ڞڞڞ) |
/ʦʰ/ [t͡sʰ]- | ㄘ | c- | none | none | ڞَ (册/冊 cè) |
|
| 18 |  (ط) |
 (ططط) |
/t/ [t], [d]-; [tɕ]- | ㄉ | t- | [tˤ]|[tˠ] | [t] | طٌ (吞 tūn) |
Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ong, -uan, -ui, -un, -uo |
| 19 |  (ظ) |
 (ظظظ) |
/ʦ/ [t͡s], [d͡z]- | ㄗ | z- | [ðˤ]|[ðˠ] | [z] | ظُوَ (作 zuò) |
Sound change occurs when representing Chinese. Used before syllable with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ong, -ui, -un, -uo |
| 20 |  (ع) |
 (ععع) |
/ə/ | ㄜ, ㄦ, ㄛ, ㄡ | e, er, o, ou | [ʕ] | [ʔ] | عَ (恶/惡 è) |
A vowel when representing Chinese, but considered a consonant when representing Arabic and Persian loans |
| 21 |  (ف) |
 (ففف) |
/f/ [f]- | ㄈ | f- | [f] | [f] | فِ (废/廢 fèi) |
|
| 22 |  (ق) |
 (ققق) |
/k/ [k], [ɡ]- | ㄍ | g- | [q] | [ɣ~ɢ], [q] | قْ (个/個 ge) |
Sound change occurs when representing Chinese |
| 23 |  (ک) |
 (ککک) |
/kʰ/ [kʰ]- | ㄎ | k- | none | [k] | کْ (可 kě) |
|
| [tɕʰ]- | ㄑ | q- | کِیٌ (穷/窮 qióng) |
Historically, in Linxia manuscripts, ٿ is more commonly used to represent Hanyu Pinyin initial q-, to more closely match the local dialect's pronunciation[1] | |||||
| 24 |  (ݣ) |
 (ݣݣݣ) |
[tɕ]- | ㄐ | j- | none | none | ڭِیُوَ (脚/腳 jiǎo) |
Used in most manuscripts to represent "j-". Some manuscripts drop the three dots and simply use "ک"[1] |
| 25 |  (ل) |
 (للل) |
/l/ [l]- | ㄌ | l- | [l] | [l] | لِ (里 lǐ) |
|
| 26 |  (م) |
 (ممم) |
/m/ [m]- | ㄇ | m- | [m] | [m] | مِ (秘 mì) |
|
| 27 |  (ن) |
 (ننن) |
/n/ [n]- | ㄋ | n- | [n] | [n] | نِ (你 nǐ) |
|
| 28 |  (و) |
 (و) |
/u/ [u], [ʊ] | ㄨ | wu, wa, wai, wang, wan, wei, wen, weng, wo, u-, -u, -u- | [w], [uː] | [v], [u], [o], [ow] | وُ (无/無 wú) |
Vowel sound |
| 29 |  (ی) |
 (ییی) |
/i/ [i], [ɪ] | ㄧ | yi, i-, -i, -i- | [j], [iː], [æː~ɑː] | [j], [i], [e] | یَا (呀 ya) |
Borrowed from Persian and a vowel sound. (See Perso-Arabic ye) |
| 30 |  (ء) |
(ء) |
[i], [ɪ], [ɥ] | ㄩ | yi, yin, yun | [ʔ] | [ʔ] | ءٌ (孕 yùn) |
Additional consonants
editThe consonants in this list are either lesser used alternatives used in regional varieties of Xiao'erjing, or they are common Arabic or Persian letters that are exclusively used for writing loan words in Xiao'erjing texts.
| Symbol | Final–Medial–Initial | Standard Mandarin pronunciation |
Bopomofo | Hanyu Pinyin | Arabic pronunciation |
Persian pronunciation |
Example | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  (ٿ) |
 (ٿٿٿ) |
[tɕʰ]- | ㄑ | q- | none | none | ٿِیٌ (穷/窮 qióng) |
Unique Xiao'erjing letter. Historically, in Linxia manuscripts, this letter instead of ک was used to represent Hanyu Pinyin initial q-, to more closely match the local dialect's pronunciation[1] |
| 2 |  (ذ) |
 (ذ) |
/ʦ/ [t͡s], [d͡z]- | ㄗ | z- | [ð] | [z] | ذَیْ (在 zài) |
Some manuscripts use this letter instead of ز |
| 3 |  (ض) |
 (ضضض) |
none | none | [dˤ] | [z] | الْضَّاد (letter ḍād) |
Only used with Arabic loans | |
| 4 |  (غ) |
 (غغغ) |
none | none | [ɣ]|[ʁ] | [ɣ~ɢ] | غَبْن (criminal fraud) |
Only used with Arabic loans | |
| 5 |  (گ) |
 (گگگ) |
none | ㄍ | none | none | [ɡ] | گنج (treasure) |
Borrowed from Persian and only used with Persian loans |
| 6 |  (ه) |
 (ههه) |
/x/ [x]- | ㄏ | h- | [h] | [h], [ɛ], [æ] | الهواء (air) |
Only used with Persian and Arabic loans |
Finals and vowels
editBelow is the list of final and vowel endings in each syllable representing each Hanzi in Xiao'erjing.[1][17]
| Script | Standard Chinese pronunciation |
Bopomofo | Hanyu Pinyin | Example | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 
|
[ɑ] | ㄚ | a | اَ (阿 ā) |
|
| 2 | 
|
-[ɑ] | ㄚ | -a | دَا (大 dà) |
|
| 3 | 
|
[aɪ] | ㄞ | ai | اَیْ (爱/愛 ài) |
|
| 4 | 
|
-[aɪ] | ㄞ | -ai | كَیْ (凯/凱 kǎi) |
|
| 5 | 
|
[an] | ㄢ | an | اً (安 ān) |
|
| 6 | 
|
-[an] | ㄢ | -an | دًا (但 dàn) |
|
| 7 | 
|
[ɑŋ] | ㄤ | ang | اَنْ (昂 áng) |
|
| 8 | 
|
-[ɑŋ] | ㄤ | -ang | قَانْ (刚/剛 gāng) |
|
| 9 | 
|
[aʊ] | ㄠ | ao | اَوْ (奥/奧 ào) |
|
| 10 | 
|
-[aʊ] | ㄠ | -ao | قَوْ (高 gāo) |
|
| 11 | 
|
[ə]|[ɤ] | ㄜ | e | عَ (恶/惡 è) |
|
| 12 | 
|
-[ə]|[ɤ] | ㄜ | -e | دْ (德 dé) |
For Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, g-, k, t- |
|
ڞَ (册/冊 cè) |
For other Hanyu Pinyin initials | ||||
| 13 | none | [eɪ] | ㄟ | ei | none | Rare, no representation in Xiao'erjing |
| 14 | 
|
-[eɪ] | ㄟ | -ei | مُوِ (玫 méi） |
For Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, l-, m-, n-, p- |
|
فِ (飞/飛 fēi） |
For other Hanyu Pinyin initials Arabic diacritic ﹾ is added to letters that don't connect to the following letter, so that the confusion of reading two characters as one syllable can be avoided | ||||
|
دِْ (得 děi) | |||||
| 15 | 
|
[ən] | ㄣ | en | عٍ (恩 ēn) |
|
| 16 | 
|
-[ən] | ㄣ | -en | مٌ (们/們 mén) |
For Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, f-, m-, n-, p- |
|
قٍ (根 gēn) |
For other Hanyu Pinyin initials | ||||
| 17 | none | [əŋ] | ㄥ | eng | none | Rare, no representation in Xiao'erjing |
| 18 |
|
-[ɤŋ] | ㄥ | -eng | رٍ (仍 réng) |
Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial r- |
|
قٍْ (更 gèng) |
For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials | ||||
| 19 | 
|
[ɑɻ] | ㄦ | er | عَر (儿/兒 er) |
|
| 20 | 
|
-[ɻ] | ㄦ | -r | لِر (粒儿/粒兒 lìr) |
Represents the rhotic final -r sound |
| 21 | 
|
[i] | ㄧ | yi | ءِ (意 yì) |
|
| 22 |
|
-[i] / -[ɯ] / -[ɨ] | ㄧ | -i | سِْ (四 sì) |
Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial s- |
|
|
کِ (其 qí) |
For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials | ||||
| 23 | 
|
[iɑ] | ㄧㄚ | ya | یَا (呀 ya) |
|
| 24 | 
|
-[iɑ] | ㄧㄚ | -ia | ݣِیَا (家 jiā) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, j-, q-, x-, l- |
| 25 | 
|
[iɛn] | ㄧㄢ | yan | یًا (严/嚴 yán) |
|
| 26 | 
|
-[iɛn] | ㄧㄢ | -ian | لِیًا (练/練 liàn) |
|
| 27 | 
|
[iɑŋ] | ㄧㄤ | yang | یَانْ (羊 yáng) |
|
| 28 | 
|
-[iɑŋ] | ㄧㄤ | -iang | لِیَانْ (良 liáng) |
|
| 29 | 
|
[iaʊ] | ㄧㄠ | yao | یَوْ (要 yào) |
|
| 30 | 
|
-[iaʊ] | ㄧㄠ | -iao | ݣِیَوْ (教 jiào) |
|
| 31 | 
|
[iɛ] | ㄧㄝ | ye | یِ (耶 yē) |
|
| 32 | 
|
-[iɛ] | ㄧㄝ | -ie | ݣِیَ (解 jiě) |
|
| 33 | 
|
[in] | ㄧㄣ | yin | ءٍ (因 yīn) |
|
| 34 |
|
-[in] | ㄧㄣ | -in | کٍ (勤 qín) |
|
| 35 | 
|
[iŋ] | ㄧㄥ | ying | یٍْ (应/應 yīng) |
|
| 36 |
|
-[iŋ] | ㄧㄥ | -ing | تٍ (圢 tǐng) |
After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, t- |
|
|
ݣٍْ (汫 jǐng) |
After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x- | ||||
|
پِیٍٔ (平 píng) |
After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, p-, m-, n-, l- | ||||
| 37 | 
|
[yʊŋ] | ㄩㄥ | yong | یٌ (用 yòng) |
|
| 38 |  or 
|
-[yʊŋ] | ㄩㄥ | -iong | کِیٌ (穷/窮 qióng) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x- |
| 39 | 
|
[iəʊ]|[iɤʊ] | ㄧㄡ | you | یِوْ (有 yǒu) |
|
| 40 | 
|
-[iəʊ]|[iɤʊ] | ㄧㄡ | -iu | نِیُوْ (牛 niú) |
|
| 41 | 
|
[o] | ㄛ | o | عِو (哦 ó) |
|
| 42 |
|
-[ʊŋ] | ㄨㄥ | -ong | سٌ (讼/訟 sòng) |
Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial s-, r- |
|
|
خْو (宏 hóng) |
For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials | ||||
| 43 | 
|
[əʊ]|[ɤʊ] | ㄡ | ou | عِوْ (偶 ǒu) |
|
| 44 | 
|
-[əʊ]|[ɤʊ] | ㄡ | -ou | كِوْ (口 kǒu) |
|
| 45 | 
|
[u] | ㄨ | wu | وُ (无/無 wú) |
|
| 46 | 
|
-[u] | ㄨ | -u | کُ (苦 kǔ) |
Arabic letter و is added to letters that don't connect to the following letter, so that the confusion of reading two characters as one syllable can be avoided |
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|
زُو (足 zú) | |||||
| 47 | 
|
[uɑ] | ㄨㄚ | wa | وَا (娃 wá) |
|
| 48 | 
|
-[uɑ] | ㄨㄚ | -ua | قُوَا (刮 guā) |
|
| 49 | 
|
[uaɪ] | ㄨㄞ | wai | وَیْ (歪 wāi) |
|
| 50 | 
|
-[uaɪ] | ㄨㄞ | -uai | كُوَیْ (块/塊 kuài) |
|
| 51 | 
|
[uan]|[wan] | ㄨㄢ | wan | وًا (万/萬 wàn) |
|
| 52 | 
|
-[uan] | ㄨㄢ | -uan | كُوًا (宽/寬 kuān) |
|
| 53 | 
|
[uɑŋ]|[wɑŋ] | ㄨㄤ | wang | وَانْ (忘 wàng) |
|
| 54 | 
|
-[uɑŋ] | ㄨㄤ | -uang | کُوَانْ (况/況 kuàng) |
|
| 55 | 
|
[ueɪ] | ㄨㄟ | wei | وِ (为/為 wèi) |
|
| 56 |
|
-[ueɪ] | ㄨㄟ | -ui | خُوِ (回 huí) |
|
| 57 | 
|
[uən]|[wən] | ㄨㄣ | wen | وٌ (问/問 wèn) |
|
| 58 |
|
-[uən] | ㄨㄣ | -un | کٌ (困 kùn) |
|
| 59 | 
|
[uɤŋ]|[wɤŋ] | ㄨㄥ | weng | وٍْ (翁 wēng) |
|
| 60 | 
|
[uə] | ㄨㄛ | wo | وَ (我 wǒ) |
|
| 61 | 
|
-[uə] | ㄨㄛ | -uo | قُوَ (国/國 guó) |
|
| -o | بُوَ (拨/撥 bō) |
Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, p-, m-, f- | ||||
| 62 | 
|
[y] | ㄩ | yu | یُوِ (与/與 yǔ) |
|
| 63 | 
|
-[y] | ㄩ | -ü, -u | نِیُوِ (女 nǚ) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-, l-, n- |
| 64 | 
|
[yɛn] | ㄩㄢ | yuan | یُوًا (源 yuán) |
|
| 65 | 
|
-[yɛn] | ㄩㄢ | -uan | ݣِیُوًا (捐 juān) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x- |
| 66 | 
|
[yɛ] | ㄩㄝ | yue | یُوَ (约/約 yuē) |
|
| 67 | 
|
-[yɛ] | ㄩㄝ | -üe, -ue | ݣِیُوَ (决/決 jué) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-, l-, n- |
| 68 | 
|
[yn] | ㄩㄣ | yun | ءٌ (孕 yùn) |
|
| 69 |
|
-[yn] | ㄩㄣ | -un | کٌ (均 jūn) |
Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x- |
- Vowels in Arabic and Persian loans follow their respective orthographies, namely, only the long vowels are represented and the short vowels are omitted. Although the sukun (
) can be omitted when representing Arabic and Persian loans, it cannot be omitted when representing Chinese. The exception being that of oft-used monosyllabic words which can have the sukun omitted from writing. For example, when emphasised, "的" and "和" are written as (دِ) and (حـَ); when unemphasised, they can be written with the sukuns as (دْ) and (حـْ), or without the sukuns as (د) and (حـ). - Similarly, the sukun can also sometimes represent the Chinese -[ŋ] final, as such (ـنْ / نْ). This is sometimes replaced by the fatḥatan (
), the kasratan (
), or the dammatan (
) in manuscripts.
In polysyllabic words, the final 'alif (ـا) that represents the long vowel -ā can be omitted and replaced by a fatḥah (
) representing the short vowel -ă.
- Xiao'erjing is similar to Hanyu Pinyin in the respect that words are written as one, while a space is inserted between words. A U+200C ZERO WIDTH NON-JOINER (‌) shall be used for separation between different syllables within the same word. Unlike Persian or Arabic, syllables (each representing one Hanji character) are not continuously connected.
- When representing Chinese words, the shaddah sign represents a doubling of the entire syllable on which it rests. It has the same function as the Chinese iteration mark "々".
- Arabic punctuation marks can be used with Xiao'erjing as can Chinese punctuation marks, they can also be mixed (Chinese pauses and periods with Arabic commas and quotation marks).
Correspondences with pinyin
edit| Organized alphabetically | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| A | |||
| a — اَ | ai — اَیْ | an — اً | ang — اَنْ |
| ao — اَوْ | |||
| B | |||
| ba — بَا | bai — بَیْ | ban — بًا | bang — بَانْ |
| bao — بَوْ | bei — بُوِ | ben — بٌ | beng — بٍْ |
| bi — بِ | bian — بِیًا | biao — بِیَوْ | bie — بِیَ |
| bin — بٍ | bing — بِیٍٔ | bo — بُوَ | bu — بُ |
| C | |||
| ca — ڞَا | cai — ڞَیْ | can — ڞًا | cang — ڞَانْ |
| cao — ڞَوْ | ce — ڞَ | cen — ڞٍ | ceng — ڞٍْ |
| ci — ڞِ | cong — ڞْو | cou — ڞِوْ | cu — ڞُ |
| cuan — ڞُوًا | cui — ڞُوِ | cun — ڞٌ | cuo — ڞُوَ |
| CH | |||
| cha — چَا | chai — چَیْ | chan — چًا | chang — چَانْ |
| chao —چَوْ | che — چَ | chen — چٍ | cheng — چٍْ |
| chi — چِ | chong — چْو | chou — چِوْ | chu — چُ |
| chuai — چُوَیْ | chuan — چُوًا | chuang — چُوَانْ | chui — چُوِ |
| chun — چٌ | chuo — چُوَ | ||
| D | |||
| da — دَا | dai — دَیْ | dan — دًا | dang — دَانْ |
| dao — دَوْ | de — دْ | dei — دِْ | deng — دٍْ |
| di — دِ | dia — دِیَا | dian — دِیًا | diao — دِیَوْ |
| die — دِیَ | ding — دٍ | diu — دِیُوْ | dong — دْو |
| dou — دِوْ | du — دُو | duan — دُوًا | dui — دُوِ |
| dun — دٌ | duo — دُوَ | ||
| E | |||
| e — عَ | er — عَر | ||
| F | |||
| fa — فَا | fan — فًا | fang — فَانْ | fei — فِ |
| fen — فٌ | feng — فٍْ | fo — فُوَ | fou — فِوْ |
| fu — فُ | |||
| G | |||
| ga — قَا | gai — قَیْ | gan — قًا | gang — قَانْ |
| gao — قَوْ | ge — قْ | gei — قِ | gen — قٍ |
| geng — قٍْ | gong — قْو | gou — قِوْ | gu — قُ |
| gua — قُوَا | guai — قُوَیْ | guan — قُوًا | guang — قُوَانْ |
| gui — قُوِ | gun — قٌ | guo — قُوَ | |
| H | |||
| ha — خَا | hai — خَیْ | han — خًا | hang — خَانْ |
| hao — خَوْ | he — حَ | hei — حِ | hen — حٍ |
| heng — حٍْ | hong — خْو | hou — خِوْ | hu — خُ |
| hua — خُوَا | huai — خُوَیْ | huan — خُوًا | huang — خُوَانْ |
| hui — خُوِ | hun — خٌ | huo — خُوَ | |
| J | |||
| ji — ݣِ | jia — ݣِیَا | jian — ݣِیًا | jiang — ݣِیَانْ |
| jiao — ݣِیَوْ | jie — ݣِیَ | jin — ݣٍ | jing — ݣٍْ |
| jiong — ݣِیٌ | jiu — ݣِیُوْ | ju — ݣِیُوِ | juan — ݣِیُوًا |
| jue — ݣِیُوَ | jun — ݣٌ | ||
| K | |||
| ka — کَا | kai — کَیْ | kan — کًا | kang — کَانْ |
| kao — کَوْ | ke — کْ | ken — کٍ | keng — کٍْ |
| kong — کْو | kou — کِوْ | ku — کُ | kua — کُوَا |
| kuai — کُوَیْ | kuan — کُوًا | kuang — کُوَانْ | kui — کُوِ |
| kun — کٌ | kuo — کُوَ | ||
| L | |||
| la — لَا | lai — لَیْ | lan — لًا | lang — لَانْ |
| lao — لَوْ | le — لَ | lei — لُوِ | leng — لٍْ |
| li — لِ | lia — لِیَا | lian — لِیًا | liang — لِیَانْ |
| liao — لِیَوْ | lie — لِیَ | lin — لٍ | ling — لِیٍٔ |
| liu — لِیُوْ | long — لْو | lou — لِوْ | lu — لُ |
| lü — لِیُوِ | luan — لُوًا | lüe — لِیُوَ | lun — لٌ |
| luo — لُوَ | |||
| M | |||
| ma — مَا | mai — مَیْ | man — مًا | |
| mang — مَانْ | mao — مَوْ | me — مَ | mei — مُوِ |
| men — مٌ | meng — مٍْ | mi — مِ | mian — مِیًا |
| miao — مِیَوْ | mie — مِیَ | min — مٍ | ming — مِیٍٔ |
| miu — مِیُوْ | mo — مُوَ | mou — مِوْ | mu — مُ |
| N | |||
| na — نَا | nai — نَیْ | nan — نًا | |
| nang — نَانْ | nao — نَوْ | ne — نَ | nei — نُوِ |
| nen — نٌ | neng — نٍْ | ni — نِ | |
| nian — نِیًا | niang — نِیَانْ | niao — نِیَوْ | nie — نِیَ |
| nin — نٍ | ning — نِیٍٔ | niu — نِیُوْ | nong — نْو |
| nu — نُ | nü — نِیُوِ | nuan — نُوًا | nüe — نِیُوَ |
| nuo — نُوَ | |||
| O | |||
| o — عِو | ou — عِوْ | ||
| P | |||
| pa — پَا | pai — پَیْ | pan — پًا | pang — پَانْ |
| pao — پَوْ | pei — پُوِ | pen — پٌ | peng — پٍْ |
| pi — پِ | pian — پِیًا | piao — پِیَوْ | pie — پِیَ |
| pin — پٍ | ping — پِیٍٔ | po — پُوَ | pou — پِوْ |
| pu — پُ | |||
| Q | |||
| qi — کِ (ٿِ) | qia — کِیَا (ٿِیَا) | qian — کِیًا (ٿِیًا) | qiang — کِیَانْ (ٿِیَانْ) |
| qiao — کِیَوْ (ٿِیَوْ) | qie — کِیَ (ٿِیَ) | qin — ٿٍ | qing — کٍْ (ٿٍْ) |
| qiong — کِیٌ (ٿِیٌ) | qiu — کِیُوْ (ٿِیُوْ) | qu — کِیُوِ (ٿِیُوِ) | quan — کِیُوًا (ٿِیُوًا) |
| que — کِیُوَ (ٿِیُوَ) | qun — کٌ (ٿٌ) | ||
| R | |||
| ran — ژًا | rang — ژَانْ | rao — ژَوْ | re — ژَ |
| ren — ژٍ | reng — ژٍْ | ri — ژِ | rong — ژٌ |
| rou — ژِوْ | ru — ژُو | ruan — ژُوًا | rui — ژُوِ |
| run — ژٌ | ruo — ژُوَ | ||
| S | |||
| sa — سَا | sai — سَیْ | san — سًا | sang — سَانْ |
| sao — سَوْ | se — سَ | sen — سٍ | seng — سٍْ |
| si — سِْ | song — سٌ | sou — سِوْ | su — سُ |
| suan — صُوًا | sui — صُوِ | sun — صٌ | suo — صُوَ |
| SH | |||
| sha — شَا | shai — شَیْ | shan — شًا | shang — شَانْ |
| shao — شَوْ | she — شَ | shei — شُوِ | shen — شٍ |
| sheng — شٍْ | shi — شِ | shou — شِوْ | shu — شُ |
| shua — شُوَا | shuai — شُوَیْ | shuan — شُوًا | shuang — شُوَانْ |
| shui — شُوِ | shun — شٌ | shuo — شُوَ | |
| T | |||
| ta — تَا | tai — تَیْ | tan — تًا | tang — تَانْ |
| tao — تَوْ | te — تْ | teng — تٍْ | |
| ti — تِ | tian — تِیًا | tiao — تِیَوْ | tie — تِیَ |
| ting — تٍ | tong — طْو | tou — تِوْ | tu — تُ |
| tuan — طُوًا | tui — طُوِ | tun — طٌ | tuo — طُوَ |
| W | |||
| wa — وَا | wai — وَیْ | wan — وًا | wang — وَانْ |
| wei — وِ | wen — وٌ | weng — وٍْ | wo — وَ |
| wu — وُ | |||
| X | |||
| xi — ثِ | xia — ثِیَا | xian — ثِیًا | xiang — ثِیَانْ |
| xiao — ثِیَوْ | xie — ثِیَ | xin — ثٍ | xing — ثٍْ |
| xiong — ثِیٌ | xiu — ثِیُوْ | xu — ثِیُوِ | xuan — ثِیُوًا |
| xue — ثِیُوَ | xun — ثٌ | ||
| Y | |||
| ya — یَا | yan — یًا | yang — یَانْ | yao — یَوْ |
| ye — یَ | yi — ءِ | yin — ءٍ | ying — یٍ |
| yong — یٌ | you — یُوْ | yu — یُوِ | yuan — یُوًا |
| yue — یُوَ | yun — ءٌ | ||
| Z | |||
| za — زَا | zai — زَیْ | zan — زًا | zang — زَانْ |
| zao — زَوْ | ze — زَ | zei — زِْ | zen — زٍ |
| zeng — زٍْ | zi — زِ | zong — ظْو | zou — زِوْ |
| zu — زُو | zuan — زُوًا | zui — ظُوِ | zun — ظٌ |
| zuo — ظُوَ | |||
| ZH | |||
| zha — جَا | zhai — جَیْ | zhan — جًا | zhang — جَانْ |
| zhao — جَوْ | zhe — جَ | zhei — جُوِ | zhen — جٍ |
| zheng — جٍْ | zhi — جِ | zhong — جْو | zhou — جِوْ |
| zhu — جُ | zhua — جُوَا | zhuai — جُوَیْ | zhuan — جُوًا |
| zhuang — جُوَانْ | zhui — جُوِ | zhun — جٌ | zhuo — جُوَ |
Example
editArticle 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
editArticle 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Xiao'erjing, as well as simplified and traditional Chinese characters, pinyin, and English:
- Xiao'erjing
- «ژٍّ شٍْ عَر زِیُوْ، زَیْ ظٌیًا حَ کِیُوًالِ شَانْ ءِلِیُوِ پِیٍٔدٍْ. تَامٌ فُیُوْ لِثٍْ حَ لِیَانْثٍ، بِیٍٔ یٍ ءِ ثِیٌدِ قُوًاثِ دْ ݣٍْشٍ خُثِیَانْ دُوِدَیْ.»
- Simplified characters
- 「人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神互相对待。」
「人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應兄弟關係的精神互相對待。」
- Correspondence between Chinese characters and Xiao'erjing
- 「人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神互相对待。」
- Pinyin
- "Rénrén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yílǜ píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdi guānxì de jīngshén hùxiāng duìdài."
- English
- "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
Al-Fatiha (الفَاتِحَةِ)
editBelow is the first sura (chapter) of the Quran, Al-Fatiha, its original Arabic text, English translation, as well as the Chinese translation in Simplified Chinese characters and in Xiao'erjing, as published (un-edited) in 1995 by Ma Zhenwu (马振武).[18]
In the Xiao'erjing version of this sura, the author may have made minor choices about characters and pronounciations that may differ from what's shown in this article, and they may even have minor inconsistencies in the text itself. Furthermore, as is the tradition for Xiao'erjing texts, there are instances where Arabic or Persian loanwords are used and written directly, these are shown in bold. It's noteworthy to mention that in this document, the Hanzi characters are written from right to left, following the flow of the Arabic text of the Quran and the Xiao'erjing translation.
| English translation | Simplified Characters | Pinyin | Xiao'erjing | Al-Fatiha Arabic original |
|---|---|---|---|---|
1. In the name of Allāh, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful! |
1. 〈我〉凭着普慈〈今世的，独慈〉，后世的，主的尊名、〈起〉 |
1. 〈Wǒ〉 píng zhe pǔ cí 〈jīn shì de, dú cí〉, hòu shì de, zhǔ de zūn míng,〈qǐ〉 |
١-<وَ> پِئٍ جَوْ پُو ژِ <ݣِئٍ شِ> دِ دُ ژِ <خْخُوشِ> دِ جُو دِ ظُوٌ مٍ «اِبْتِدَاءُ» |
١-بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ simplified Chinese: 本经; traditional Chinese: 本經; pinyin: Běnjīng, Xiao'erjing: بٌݣٍْ, Dungan: Бынҗин, [Вьnⱬin] Error: [undefined] Error: {{Lang}}: no text (help): Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch (help)
References
editCitations
edit- ^ a b c d e f g Sobieroj, Florian. (2019) "Standardisation in Manuscripts written in Sino-Arabic Scripts and xiaojing". Creating Standards: Interactions with Arabic script in 12 manuscript cultures, edited by Dmitry Bondarev, Alessandro Gori and Lameen Souag, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 177–216. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110639063-008
- ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 155. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Howard Yuen Fung Choy (2008). Remapping the past: fictions of history in Deng's China, 1979–1997. Brill. p. 92. ISBN 978-90-04-16704-9. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Daftar-i Muṭālaʻāt-i Siyāsī va Bayn al-Milalī (Iran) (2000). The Iranian journal of international affairs, Volume 12. Institute for Political and International Studies. p. 52. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Centre for the Study of Religion and Communism (2003). Religion in communist lands, Volume 31. Centre for the Study of Religion and Communism. p. 13. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Tōkyō Daigaku. Tōyō Bunka Kenkyūjo (2006). International journal of Asian studies, Volumes 3–5. Cambridge University Press. p. 141. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Geoffrey Roper (1994). World survey of Islamic manuscripts. 4. (Supplement; including indexes of languages, names and titles of collections of volumes I-IV), Volumes 1–4. Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation. p. 96. ISBN 1-873992-11-4. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-295-97644-6. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ Geoffrey Roper (1994). World survey of Islamic manuscripts. 4. (Supplement; including indexes of languages, names and titles of collections of volumes I-IV), Volumes 1–4. Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation. p. 71. ISBN 1-873992-11-4. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ Stéphane A. Dudoignon (2008). Central Eurasian Reader: a biennial journal of critical bibliography and epistemology of Central Eurasian Studies, Volume 1. Schwarz. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-87997-347-7. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ Centre for the Study of Religion and Communism (2003). Religion in communist lands, Volume 31. Centre for the Study of Religion and Communism. p. 14. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Suad Joseph, Afsaneh Najmabadi (2003). Encyclopedia of women & Islamic cultures, Volume 1. Brill. p. 126. ISBN 90-04-13247-3. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Daftar-i Muṭālaʻāt-i Siyāsī va Bayn al-Milalī (Iran) (2000). The Iranian journal of international affairs, Volume 12. Institute for Political and International Studies. p. 42. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Archives de sciences sociales des religions, Volume 46, Issues 113–116. Centre national de la recherche scientifique. 2001. p. 25. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Kees Versteegh; Mushira Eid (2005). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed. Brill. pp. 381–. ISBN 978-90-04-14473-6.
- ^ Garnaut, Anthony (March 2006). "The Islamic Heritage in China: A General Survey". China Heritage Newsletter (5).
- ^ Suutarinen, M. (2015). Arabic Script among China’s Muslims: A Dongxiang folk story. Studia Orientalia Electronica, 113, 197–208. Retrieved from https://journal.fi/store/article/view/51814
- ^ Quran (1995, December), The first 18 sura (The first half of the book, first 15 out of 30 portions) - In original Arabic, as well as with Chinese translations, written in Hanzi and in Xiao'erjing transliteration: archive.org/details/20241115_20241115_1438
Sources
edit- A. Forke. Ein islamisches Tractat aus Turkistan // T’oung pao. Vol. VIII. 1907.
- O.I. Zavyalova. Sino-Islamic language contacts along the Great Silk Road: Chinese texts written in Arabic Script // Chinese Studies (《漢學研究》). Taipei: 1999. No. 1.
- Xiaojing Qur'an (《小經古蘭》), Dongxiang County, Lingxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu, PRC, 1987.
- Huijiao Bizun (Xiaojing) (《回教必遵（小經）》), Islam Book Publishers, Xi'an, Shaanxi, PRC, 1993, 154 pp., photocopied edition.
- Muhammad Musa Abdulihakim. Islamic faith Q&A (《伊斯兰信仰问答》) (2nd ed.). Beiguan Street Mosque, Xining, Qinghai, PRC, appendix contains a Xiao'erjing–Pinyin–Arabic comparison chart.
- Feng Zenglie. Beginning Dissertation on Xiao'erjing: Introducing a phonetic writing system of the Arabic script adopted for Chinese in The Arab World (《阿拉伯世界》) Issue #1. 1982.
- Chen Yuanlong. The Xiaojing writing system of the Dongxiang ethnicity in China's Dongxiang ethnicity (《中国东乡族》). People's Publishing House of Gansu. 1999.
Further reading
edit
- Machida, Kazuhiko; Ando, Junichiro; Kuroiwa, Takashi; Sato, Minoru; Sugawara, Jun; Wang, Jianxin; Yoshizawa, Seiichiro. "Corpus of "Xiao-Er-Jin" Script of Muslim Chinese: Collection and Digitalization". Grammatological Informatics based on Corpora of Asian Scripts. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
- "Xiao'erjin [sic] is not quite Pinyin". Sinoglot. — blog post about the decline of Xiao'erjing and problems surrounding its use
- "Xiao'erjing Conversion Tool". 17 October 2023. — Chinese to Xiao'erjing online transcription tool.
External Links
edit- Quran (1995, December), The first 18 sura (The first half of the book, first 15 out of 30 portions) - In original Arabic, as well as with Chinese translations, written in Hanzi and in Xiao'erjing transliteration: archive.org/details/20241115_20241115_1438