Wikipedia

Black Vaudeville

Black Vaudeville is a term that specifically describes Vaudeville-era African American entertainers and the milieus of dance, music, and theatrical performances they created. Spanning the years between the 1880s and early 1930s, these acts not only brought elements and influences unique to American black culture directly to African Americans but ultimately spread them beyond to both white American society and Europe.

Cover of A Rabbit's Foot theatre programme, about 1908

Vaudeville had what were known as "circuits", venues that booked touring entertainers. Racism made it difficult for a black performer to be accepted into the white circuits of the day, though some performers had crossover appeal. The Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA) was created for Black performers to get steady bookings in theaters that served Black audiences. Eventually, TOBA was replaced in the 1930s by "chitlin' circuits", which emerged to link black performers and entertainment opportunities.

Background

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American Vaudeville began in the early 1880s, at the end of Reconstruction, and ended with the rise of talking cinema and the Great Depression in the early 1930s.[1][2] Each vaudeville show contained a number of different acts, which might feature singing, dancing, comedy, and novelty acts. With its roots in variety and Minstrel Shows of the mid-19th century, it was common in Vaudeville for white performers to perform racist stereotypes of Black Americans, using Blackface, minstrel songs, and coon songs, in their acts.[3]

Talented Black Americans saw working in Vaudeville as a more profitable and satisfying alternative than the laboring and domestic jobs that were available to them in the 19th century.[1] Though some early Black performers worked within the stereotypes, using Blackface and writing coon songs themselves,[4] others challenged these stereotypes with irony and humor,[5] or performed and produced acts that were more authentic to their talents and experience.[3] Playing to both white and black audiences, as well as 'mixed' audiences with segregated seating, they were paid less than their white counterparts by national booking agencies and encountered discrimination in lodging and booking. Shows for white audiences were limited to just one Black act per show[6] though a white actors strike in 1901 opened doors for African-American performers.[7] Some Black performers opted for working only for Black audiences,;[8] others formed their own touring companies,[9] labor organizations,[10] booking agencies and theater circuits.[11]

Pat Chappelle: An early pioneer

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Main article: The Rabbit's Foot Company

Before 1912, when Sherman H. Dudley put together the Colored Consolidated Vaudeville Exchange, vaudeville's major circuits usually included only the managers of theaters serving white audiences.[12] But early Black entrepreneurs like Pat Chappelle organized travelling shows and smaller circuits for black and white audiences and helped pave the way for African-American performers.

Chappelle (1869–1911) was a black showman from Jacksonville, Florida. He learned the show business ropes from his uncle Julius C. Chappelle, who allowed him to meet Franklin Keith and Edward F. Albee, producers of vaudeville. Pat ended up working for Keith and Albee as a piano player. During his vaudeville debut, he met Edward Elder Cooper who was a journalist interested in black entertainment and the first to write a journal about the African-American race in 1891.

 
Pat Chapelle's Imperial Colored Minstrels Ad, 1899, Memphis Tennessee. Vaudeville had its roots in Minstrel Shows; Pat Chapelle toured the South with his show and paved the way for Black performers and entrepreneurs in Vaudeville

In 1898, Chappelle organised his first traveling show, the Imperial Colored Minstrels (or Famous Imperial Minstrels),[13] which featured comedian Arthur "Happy" Howe and toured successfully around the South.[14][15] Chappelle also opened a pool hall in the commercial district of Jacksonville. Remodeled as the Excelsior Hall, it became the first black-owned theater in the South, reportedly seating 500 people.[16][17]

In 1899, following a dispute with the white landlord of the Excelsior Hall, J. E. T. Bowden, who was also the Mayor of Jacksonville, Chappelle closed the theatre and moved to Tampa, where he – with fellow African-American entrepreneur R. S. Donaldson – opened a new vaudeville house, the Buckingham, in the Fort Brooke neighborhood. The Buckingham Theatre opened in September 1899, and within a few months was reported to be "crowded to the doors every night with Cubans, Spaniards, Negroes and white people".[16] In December 1899 Chappelle and Donaldson opened a second theatre, the Mascotte, closer to the center of Tampa.[16][13] A different reporter said, “These theaters have proven themselves to be miniature gold mines.”

His next project was a touring show called A Rabbit's Foot. The difference between this tour and previous ones were the cast was sixty people, and all performers would be comfortable. If a black performer was able to tour in a white circuit, they would not be allowed to sleep in the hotels when they stopped to rest, because the hotels would not allow it. They slept on the bus because it was better than the floor.[18] On Chappelle's tour, the Freeman described their travel accommodations as “their own train of new dining and sleeping cars, which ‘tis said, when finished, will be a ‘palace on wheels.” Like his Famous Imperial Minstrel show, A Rabbit's Foot contained minstrel and a variety of acts while maintaining the expected vaudeville staging flare. Chappelle offered a show for everyone.[19]

 
Blues singer Ma Rainey got her start with Pat Chapelle's Company, A Rabbit's Foot

In mid-1900, Chappelle decided to put the show into theatres rather than under tents, first in Paterson, New Jersey, and then in Brooklyn, New York. In October 1901, the company launched its second season, with a roster of performers again led by comedian Arthur "Happy" Howe, and toured in Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and Florida. The show grew in popularity throughout the early years of the century, and played in both theatres and tents.[16][13] Trading as Chappelle Bros.,[15] Pat Chappelle and his brothers, James E. Chappelle and Lewis W. Chappelle, rapidly organised a small vaudeville circuit, including theatre venues in Savannah, Georgia, as well as Jacksonville and Tampa. By 1902 it was said that the Chappelle Bros. Circuit had full control of the African-American vaudeville business in that part of the country, "able to give from 12 to 14 weeks [of employment] to at least 75 performers and musicians" each season.[14]

Chappelle stated that he had "accomplished what no other Negro has done - he has successfully run a Negro show without the help of a single white man."[16] As his business grew, he was able to own and manage multiple tent shows, and the Rabbit's Foot Company would travel to as many as sixteen states in a season. The show included minstrel performances, dancers, circus acts, comedy, musical ensemble pieces, drama and classic opera,[20] and was known as one of the few "authentic negro" vaudeville shows around. It traveled most successfully in the southeast and southwest, and also to Manhattan and Coney Island.[21]

By 1904, the Rabbit's Foot show had expanded to fill three Pullman railroad carriages, and advertiseded as "the leading Negro show in America".[22] For the 1904–05 season, the company included week-long stands in Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland. Two of its most popular performers were singing comedian Charles "Cuba" Santana and trombonist Amos Gilliard.[16] Another performer, William Rainey, brought his young bride Gertrude (later known as "Ma" Rainey) to join the company in 1906.[16] That year, Chappelle launched a second traveling tent company, the Funny Folks Comedy Company, with performers alternating between the two companies. The business continued to expand, though in August 1908, one of the Pullman Company railroad carriages used by the show burned to the ground in Shelby, North Carolina, while several of the entertainers were asleep. Chappelle quickly ordered a new carriage and eighty-foot round tent so the show could go on the following week.[17]

 
Tim Moore, who became famous as Kingfish in Amos 'n' Andy, worked in Vaudeville

Pat Chappelle died from an unspecified illness in October 1911, aged 42, and the Rabbit's Foot Company was bought in 1912 by Fred Swift Wolcott (1882-1967), a white farmer originally from Michigan, who had owned a small carnival company, F. S. Wolcott Carnivals. Wolcott maintained the Rabbit's Foot company as a touring show,[23] initially as both owner and manager, and attracted new talent including blues singer Ida Cox who joined the company in 1913. "Ma" Rainey also brought the young Bessie Smith into the troupe, and worked with her until Smith left in 1915. The show's touring base moved to Wolcott's 1,000-acre Glen Sade Plantation outside Port Gibson, Mississippi in 1918, with offices in the center of town. Wolcott began to refer to the show as a "minstrel show" – a term Chappelle had eschewed – though one member of his company, trombonist Leon "Pee Wee" Whittaker, described him as "a good man" who looked after his performers.[16] Each spring, musicians from around the country assembled in Port Gibson to create a musical, comedy, and variety show to perform under canvas. In his book The Story of the Blues, Paul Oliver wrote:[24]

The 'Foots' traveled in two cars and had an 80' x 110' tent which was raised by the roustabouts and canvassmen, while a brass band would parade in town to advertise the coming of the show...The stage would be of boards on a folding frame and Coleman lanterns – gasoline mantle lamps – acted as footlights. There were no microphones; the weaker voiced singers used a megaphone, but most of the featured women blues singers scorned such aids to volume...

The company, by this time known as "F. S. Wolcott's Original Rabbit's Foot Company" or "F. S. Wolcott’s Original Rabbit's Foot Minstrels", continued to perform its annual tours through the 1920s and 1930s, playing small towns during the week and bigger cities at weekends. The show provided a basis for the careers of many leading African American musicians and entertainers, including Butterbeans and Susie, Tim Moore, Big Joe Williams, Louis Jordan, George Guesnon, Leon "Pee Wee" Whittaker, Brownie McGhee, and Rufus Thomas. Wolcott remained its general manager and owner until he sold the company in 1950, to Earl Hendren of Erwin, Tennessee, who in turn sold it in 1955 to Eddie Moran of Monroe, Louisiana, when it was still trading under Wolcott's name.[16] Records suggest that its last performance was in 1959.[25]

Dance

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As vaudeville became more popular the competition for “the most flashy” act increased. As minstrelsy became less popular other types of movement were created and carried on to the Vaudeville stage. A performer named Benjamin Franklin had an act that was described by his minstrel troupe leader, “waltzes with a pail of water on his head and plays the French horn at the same time.”[26]

 
Portrait of tap dancer Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, 1920s
 
Dancer and choreographer Aida Overton Walker, known as "the Queen of the Cakewalk" 1910

Dance was entertainment that was accepted in almost every act slot on the bill for a Vaudeville show. Tap, with origins in Africa and Europe, was a style that was often seen.[27] Hamboning had been a way for performers to create percussion sounding beats by tapping or slapping their chests and thighs. In the 1870s and 1880s, hamboning was mixed with clog-shoe dances and Irish jigs to create tap.[citation needed]

Vaudeville saw two types of tap: buck-and-wing and four-four time soft shoe. Buck-and-wing consisted of gliding, sliding, and stomping movements at high speeds. Wing was a portion in which on a jump, feet would continue to dance in mid air. Soft shoe was more relaxed and elegant. Metal plates were added to the bottom of tap shoes to create a stronger percussion sound. However, after just a few short dance routines the softwood Vaudeville stage would easily tatter. Theater owners replaced the section of the stage that was in front of the curtain with durable maple, which spared them from changing out the entire stage while allowing them to feature “in-one-number” acts performed with the curtain as a backdrop while the set was changed for the following act. This kept audiences entertained - and, importantly, put.

Famous tap dancers of the time who are still well-remembered today include Buster Brown and the Speed Kings, Beige & Brown, the Nicholas Brothers and Bill "Bojangles" Robinson.[18] Alice Whitman of the Whitman Sisters was highly praised for her skills in both ballet and tap-dancing.[28] Dancer and choreographer Aida Overton Walker was known as the Vaudeville Queen of the Cakewalk.[29]

Music

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Anna Madah Hyers of the Hyers Sisters, who wrote and performed musical theater
 
Louis Armstrong was one of the many jazz greats who got their start in Vaudeville

The black musicians and composers of the vaudeville era influenced what is now known as American musical comedy, jazz, blues and Broadway musical theater. The popular music of the time was ragtime, a lively form developed from black folk music prominently featuring piano and banjo.[30] The fast tempo of Ragtime matched the pace of the Vaudevillian revue type show.

Thomas Greene Bethune or ("Blind Tom") composed 100 pieces and could play over 7,000. He was exploited by a slave owner John Benthune. For example, John let Tom perform to make himself money. “Blind Tom” made $100,000 in 1866 and only received $3,000 of this. John William Boone was a fellow blind pianist, a professional at the age of fourteen, known as “Blind Boone”. John and Tom shared a piano ragtime style of "jig piano". This consisted of the left hand playing the beat of the tuba while the right hand played the fiddle and banjo melodies. This music portrayed slaves dances, including beats at times created by the only instrument they had, their bodies.[31]

Other successful Black composers and songwriters of the Vaudeville era included Ernest Hogan, Bob Cole, Rosamond Johnson, George Johnson, Tom Lemonier, Gussie L. Davis, Chris Smith, Irving Jones, Turner Layton and Henry Creamer.[32]

The Hyers Sisters, who began performing in the late 1870s, and Sissieretta Jones, who gave up classic opera to lead a Vaudeville touring company, were pioneers of Black Musical Theater. The jazz pianist and composer Eubie Blake got his start in 1920s Vaudeville,[33] as did Louis Armstrong and other jazz musicians.[34][35] Notable Black female blues singers who started on the Vaudeville stage included Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Clara Smith, Mamie Smith, Mamie Brown, Ida Cox, and Edmonia Henderson.[36] Another venue for up-and-coming musicians and performers was the circus sideshow.[37]

Comedy

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Williams (left) & Walker, on the 1903 cover to the sheet music for "I'm a Jonah Man" (from the musical In Dahomey)

Comedy was one of the mainstays of Vaudeville; singing and dancing acts often incorporated comedy in their routine. Black comedians responded to the prevailing comic Blackface stereotypes by exaggerating them to the point of absurdity, or adding their own, more nuanced authenticity and style. Popular Black comics in Vaudeville included Bert Williams, George Walker, Bob Cole, Ernest Hogan, Billy Kersands, Irving Jones, Charlie Case, Ernie Sunshine Morrison, and the duo Flourney Miller and Aubrey Lyles.[38] Women comedians usually performed as the foil for a male partner; Moms Mabley was the first to create her own solo act in the 1920s, eventually taking it from the Chitlin Circuit to the mainstream.[39] Performers Florence Hines and Andrew Tribble used cross-dressing in their comedy routines.[40][41]

In 1903, the comedic theatrical company The Smart Set, with performer Ernest Hogan and writer/performer Billy McClain, broke with earlier minstrel stereotypes and presented African-Americans as more fashionable and sophisticated, touring throughout the North and South. Though they received good reviews, some Southern white theater owners refused to book them because they did not adhere to common stereotypes. Sherman H. Dudley later took over as producer and lead comedian of this company, followed by Salem Tutt Whitney, who created the Southern Smart Set in the 1910s. Producer Alexander Tolliver also used the name Smart Set in his freewheeling Big Tent variety show, which drew heavily upon developing blues and jazz tunes, and included novelty acts and acrobats. Tolliver's show, with an all black crew, started in 1914 and continued to be popular to black and white audiences until 1930.[16]

T.O.B.A and Chitlin' circuits

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Main article: Chitlin' Circuit

As the live entertainment industry grew, actors, singers, comedians, musicians, dancers, and acrobats began to retain agents to book their acts.[18] Booking associations sprung up, serving a middle man role between agents and theater owners. Theaters like the Pekin Theater in Chicago and the Lafayette Theater in New York City were created and managed by Black entrepreneurs for black performers and audiences. The dominant black vaudeville theater circuit of the day was the Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA), known among performers of the time as “Tough On Black Actors”.[42] TOBA's management was interracial; Black entrepreneur Sherman H. Dudley laid the groundwork for TOBA in 1912 with his circuit of Black owned theaters, continued managing his part of the TOBA theater circuit and had a position on TOBA's board of directors.[10][12]

T.O.B.A dissolved in 1930; by then "chitlin' circuits" for black entertainers had begun. The name stemmed from a regional Southern dish associated with blacks and their slave heritage:“chitlins”, deep fried pig's knuckles and intestines. Chitlin' circuit touring groups would often be forced to perform in venues such as school auditoriums because theaters were not always available to them due to segregation. ”[42] They would also travel directly to black neighborhoods to bring them entertainment. The content of the touring shows was melodramatic and farcical, designed to be enjoyed in the moment.[42]

Notable people in Black Vaudeville

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Sherman Dudley started one of the first Black Vaudeville theater circuits
  • Sherman H. Dudley (1872–1940), performer and entrepreneur who created the first Black owned Vaudeville circuit and the Colored Actors Union[11][10]
  • The Griffin Sisters (1870s–1918), performers and entrepreneurs who created one of the first Black women-owned Vaudeville circuits[8]
  • Florence Hines, (1868-1924) singer/dancer known as "the queen of male impersonators"
  • The Hyers Sisters (1857–1901), first Black women Vaudeville performers in 1876, toured U.S. with comic operas addressing slavery and freedom
  • John William Isham (1866–1902), creator of The Octoroons, one of the first vaudeville shows with all Black performers and chorus line[43]
  • Moms Mabley (1897–1975), 20th century comedian who got her start in Vaudeville
  • Sisserietta Jones (1868–1932), world-renowned opera singer who performed with Black Patti's Troubadours.
  • P.G. Lowry (1869-1942), bandleader and entrepreneur who created musical events for circus sideshows
  • Sylvester Russell, (1860-1930) theater critic for the Indianapolis Freeman
  • Tutt Brothers, writers, producers and performers
  • George Walker (1873–1911), comedian and creator of the Frogs, an organization for advancing Black performers and their work
  • Whitman Sisters, quartet who ran their own touring company from 1900–1943
  • Bert Williams (1874–1922), pre-eminent Vaudeville comedian and actor

See also

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African-American Musical Theater

References

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  1. ^ a b "Black Vaudeville". Hennepin Theater Trust. 13 November 2022. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
  2. ^ "Vaudeville". Britannica.com. Encyclopedia Brittanica. 28 December 2023. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
  3. ^ a b Lemons, J Stanley (1977). "Black Stereotypes as Reflected in Popular Culture 18801920". American Quarterly. 29 (1): 106–109. doi:10.2307/2712263. JSTOR 2712263. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
  4. ^ "From Bojangles to Broadway". Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale University Library. 14 December 2018.
  5. ^ Kearns, Amber. "African-American Vaudeville: Separate and Unequal". American Vaudeville. University of Arizona. Retrieved January 29, 2024.
  6. ^ Soutiropoulos, Karen (2009). Staging Race. Harvard University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-674-04387-9. Retrieved January 29, 2024.
  7. ^ Cullen, Hickman, Frank, Florence (2007). Vaudeville Old and New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performances in America. Psychology Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-415-93853-2. Retrieved January 30, 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ a b Scott, Michelle R. (2016). "These Ladies Do Business with A Capital B: The Griffin Sisters As Black Businesswomen in Early Vaudeville". The Journal of African American History. 101 (4): 469–503. doi:10.5323/jafriamerhist.101.4.0469. JSTOR 10.5323/jafriamerhist.101.4.0469. S2CID 151662539. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
  9. ^ "Women in History: Sissieretta Jones". Women in History Ohio. Retrieved January 29, 2024.
  10. ^ a b c Hill & Barnett, Anthony & Douglas (2008). Historical Dictionary of African American Theater. Scarecrow Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-8108-6276-0. Retrieved January 29, 2024.
  11. ^ a b Knight, Athelia (1987). "He Paved the Way for T. O. B. A." The Black Perspective in Music. 15 (2): 153–181. doi:10.2307/1214675. JSTOR 1214675 – via JSTOR.
  12. ^ a b Monod, David (2020). Vaudeville and the Making of Modern Entertainment. UNC Press Books. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-4696-6056-1. Retrieved January 31, 2024.
  13. ^ a b c Sampson, Henry T. (2013) [1980]. Blacks in Blackface: A Sourcebook on Early Black Musical Shows. Scarecrow Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-8108-8351-2.
  14. ^ a b Bernard L. Peterson, The African American Theatre Directory, 1816-1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Black Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997, p. 104
  15. ^ a b Bernard L. Peterson, Profiles of African American Stage Performers and Theatre People, 1816-1960, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. 51
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Lynn Abbott, Doug Seroff, Ragged But Right: Black Traveling Shows, Coon Songs, and the Dark Pathway to Blues and Jazz, Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2009, pp.248-268
  17. ^ a b Peter Dunbaugh Smith, Ashley Street Blues: Racial Uplift and the Commodification of Vernacular Performance in LaVilla Florida, 1896-1916 Archived 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine, Florida State University, The College of Arts and Science, Dissertation, 2006
  18. ^ a b c Pollak, Max M. “A Short History of Tap: From Picks and Chitlins all the way to ‘Bring in ’Da Noise’.” Ballett International, Tanz akuell. 7 (2001-07): 25-27. Seelze. UCSB Main Library. October 25, 2011
  19. ^ Brown, Canter, Jr, and Larry Eugene Rivers. "'The Art of Gathering a Crowd': Florida's Pat Chappelle and the origins of Black-Owned Vaudeville", The Journal of African American History 92.2 (2007): 169+. Academic OneFile. Web. 26 October 2011
  20. ^ "Rabbit's Foot Comedy Company; T. G. Williams; William Mosely; Ross Jackson; Sam Catlett; Mr. Chappelle" News/Opinion, The Freeman page 6. October 7, 1905. Indianapolis, Indiana
  21. ^ "The Stage." News/Opinion, The Freeman, p. 5, June 9, 1900. Indianapolis, Indiana
  22. ^ "Wait For The Big Show". The Afro American. 23 April 1904. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  23. ^ "Notes: Rabbit Foot Company". The Freeman. 26 April 1913. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  24. ^ Paul Oliver, The Story of the Blues, 1972, ISBN 0-14-003509-5
  25. ^ "Rabbit Foot Minstrels". Msbluestrail.org. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
  26. ^ Emery, Lynne Fauley. Black Dance from 1619 to Today, London: Dance Books Ltd, 1988. Print
  27. ^ Michiels Hernandez, Barbara L.; Ozmun, Michelle; Keeton, Gladys (April 2013). "Healthy and Creative Tap Dance: Teaching a Lifetime Physical Activity". Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 84 (4): 29–40. doi:10.1080/07303084.2013.773810. ISSN 0730-3084. S2CID 144368244.
  28. ^ Willis, Cheryl M. (2023). Black Tap Dance and Its Women Pioneers. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-4916-0. Retrieved January 31, 2024.
  29. ^ Walker, Aida Overton (27 November 2018). "How to Cakewalk". Syncopated Times. Retrieved January 31, 2024.
  30. ^ Blesh, Rudi; Janis, Harriet. They all Played Ragtime: The True Story of American Music. London and Beccles, Great Britain: William Clowes and Sons Ltd, 1958
  31. ^ Taylor, Fredrick J. “Black Music and Musicians in the Nineteenth Century.” The Western Journal of Black Studies. 29.3 (2005), p. 165. Academic OneFile. Web. 26 October 2011
  32. ^ "African-American Performers on Early. Sound Recordings". Library of Congress. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  33. ^ Southern, Eileen (2002)
  34. ^ Kenny III, William Howland (1986). "The Influence of Black Vaudeville In Early Jazz". The Black Perspective in Music. 14 (3): 233–248. doi:10.2307/1215064. JSTOR 1215064. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  35. ^ Kernfeld, Barry. ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan. p. 231.ISBN 1-56159-284-6
  36. ^ "Mapping Black Women In Vaudeville". The Musical Geography Project. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  37. ^ Abbott
  38. ^ Watkins, Mel (1999). On the Real Side: A History of African-American Comedy (Chapter Four). Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-56976-760-3. Retrieved January 31, 2024.
  39. ^ Wood, Katelyn Hale (2021). Cracking Up: Black Feminist Comedy in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Century. University of Iowa Press. ISBN 978-1-60938-773-0. Retrieved January 31, 2024.
  40. ^ Sampson 2013, p. 6.
  41. ^ "Tribble, Andrew A." Notable Kentucky African Americans Database. University of Kentucky. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
  42. ^ a b c Gates, Henry Louis Jr. “The Chitlin Circuit.” African American Performance and Theater History: A Critical Reader, Oxford University Press
  43. ^ Sampson 2013, p. 50.
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