The Scythian languages (/ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/ or /ˈskɪθiən/) are a group of Eastern Iranic languages of the classical and late antique period (the Middle Iranic period), spoken in a vast region of Eurasia by the populations belonging to the Scythian cultures and their descendants. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythian-speakers were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranic group of Indo-Iranic languages.
| Scythian | |
|---|---|
| Ethnicity | Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans |
| Geographic distribution | Central Asia, West Asia, Eastern Europe |
| Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | sogd1247 (Sogdic-Ossetic)saka1303 (Saka-Wakhi) |
.png) The approximate distribution of Eastern Iranic languages and peoples in 100 BC appears in green. | |
| Notes | |
Most of the Scythian languages eventually became extinct, except for modern Ossetian (which descends from the Alanian dialect of Scytho-Sarmatian), Wakhi (which descends from the Khotanese and Tumshuqese forms of Scytho-Khotanese), and Yaghnobi (which descends from Sogdian). Alexander Lubotsky summarizes the known linguistic landscape as follows:[1]
Unfortunately, we know next to nothing about the Scythian of that period [Old Iranian] – we have only a couple of personal and tribal names in Greek and Persian sources at our disposal – and cannot even determine with any degree of certainty whether it was a single language.
Classification
editOssetian is an Eastern Iranic language. The vast majority of Scythological scholars agree in considering the Scythian languages a part of the Eastern Iranic languages too. This relies principally on the fact that the Greek inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast contain several hundreds of Sarmatian names showing a close affinity to the Ossetian language.[2][3]
Some scholars detect a division of Scythian into two dialects: a western, more conservative dialect, and an eastern, more innovative one.[4] The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum:
- Alanian languages or Scytho-Sarmatian in the west: were spoken by people originally of Iranic stock from the 8th and 7th century BC onwards in the area of Ukraine, Southern Russia and Kazakhstan.
- Modern Ossetian survives as a continuation of the language family possibly represented by Scytho-Sarmatian inscriptions, although the Scytho-Sarmatian language family "does not simply represent the same [Ossetian] language" at an earlier date.
- Saka languages or Scytho-Khotanese in the east: spoken in the first century in the Kingdom of Khotan (located in present-day Xinjiang, China), and including the Khotanese of Khotan and Tumshuqese of Tumshuq.[5]
It is highly probable that already in the Old Iranic period, there were some eastern Scythian dialects which gave rise to the ancestor(s) of the Sogdian and Yaghnobi languages, although data required to test this hypothesis is presently lacking.[6]
The Scythian languages shared some features with other Eastern Iranic languages, such as the use of the suffix -ta to denote the plural form, which is also present in Sogdian, Chorasmian, Ossetian, and Yaghnobi.[7]
Phonology
editThe Pontic Scythian language possessed the following phonemes:[8]
| Front | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | iː | u | uː |
| Mid | eː | oː | ||
| Open | a | aː | ||
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p | b | t | d (earliest) | k | ɡ | ||||||||||
| Affricate | t͡s | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | |||||||||||||
| Fricative | f | θ | ð (earlier) | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | x | xʷ | h | ||||||
| Sonorant | m | l (later) | n | r | j | (ŋ) | w | |||||||||
This article uses cursive theta ⟨ϑ⟩ to denote the Scythian voiceless dental fricative (IPA /θ/), and regular theta ⟨θ⟩ to denote the Greek aspirated, voiceless dental plosive (IPA /tʰ/).
The western dialects of the Scythian languages had experienced an evolution of the Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into the Proto-Scythian sound /ð/, which in the Cimmerian and Pontic dialects of Scythian became the sound /l/. Scythian shares the evolution of Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into /ð/ with all Eastern Iranic languages with the exception of Ossetian, Yaghnobi, and Ishkashimi; and the later evolution of /ð/ into /l/ is also present in several Eastern Iranic languages such as Bactrian, Pashto, Munjani, and Yidgha.[7][8]
History
editEarly Eastern Iranic peoples originated in the Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BC) in Central Asia.[9] The Scythians migrated from Central Asia toward Eastern Europe in the 8th and 7th century BC, occupying today's Southern Russia and Ukraine and the Carpathian Basin and parts of Moldova and Dobruja. They disappeared from history after the Hunnish invasion of Europe in the 5th century AD, and Turkic (Avar, Batsange, etc.) and Slavic peoples probably assimilated most people speaking Scythian.[citation needed] However, in the Caucasus, the Ossetian language belonging to the Scythian linguistic continuum remains in use today[update], while in Central Asia, some languages belonging to Eastern Iranic group are still spoken, namely Pashto, the Pamir languages and Yaghnobi.
Corpus
editInscriptions
editSome scholars ascribe certain inscribed objects found in the Carpathian Basin and in Central Asia to the Scythians, but the interpretation of these inscriptions remains disputed (given that nobody has definitively identified the alphabet or translated the content).
Issyk inscription
editThe Issyk inscription is not yet certainly deciphered, and is probably in a Scythian dialect, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language. János Harmatta, using the Kharoṣṭhī script, identified the language as a Khotanese Saka dialect spoken by the Kushans, tentatively translating:[10]
| Line | Transliteration | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | za(ṃ)-ri ko-la(ṃ) mi(ṃ)-vaṃ vaṃ-va pa-zaṃ pa-na de-ka mi(ṃ)-ri-to | The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, |
| 2 | ña-ka mi pa-zaṃ vaṃ-va va-za(ṃ)-na vaṃ. | then added cooked fresh butter on |
Personal names
editThe primary sources for Scythian words remain the Scythian toponyms, tribal names, and numerous personal names in the ancient Greek texts and in the Greek inscriptions found in the Greek colonies on the Northern Black Sea Coast. These names suggest that the Sarmatian language had close similarities to modern Ossetian.[11]
Recorded Scythian personal names include:
| Name | Attested forms | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| *Ariyapaiϑah | Ancient Greek: Αριαπειθης, romanized: Ariapeithēs | Composed of:[12][13][14][15] |
| *Hiϑāmϑrauša | Ancient Greek: Ιδανθυρσος, romanized: Idanthursos | Meaning "prospering the ally." Composed of:[16] |
| *Hupāyā | Ancient Greek: Οποιη, romanized: Opoiē | Composed of:[13]
|
| *Pālaka | Ancient Greek: Παλακος, romanized: Palakos | From an earlier form *Pāδaka after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "tall-legged" and "long-legged." Composed of:[17][18]
|
| *Pṛtatavah | Akkadian: 𒁹𒁇𒋫𒌅𒀀, romanized: Bartatua or Partatua[19] Ancient Greek: Προτοθυης, romanized: Protothuēs |
Means "who is mighty in battle." Composed of:[20][21][22]
|
| *Pr̥ϑutavā | Composed of:[23][24]
| |
| *Šaitafarna | Ancient Greek: Σαιταφαρνος, romanized: Saitapharnos or Ancient Greek: Σαιταφαρνης, romanized: Saitapharnēs | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaitafarna,[25] possibly meaning "with a bright farna," itself composed of:[26]
|
| *Šaϑraka | Ancient Greek: Σατρακης, romanized: Satrakēs | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaϑraka,[25] itself composed of:[27]
Cognate with Ossetian Æхсæртæг (Æxsærtæg)[28] and Æхсæртæггатӕ (Æxsærtæggatæ).[29] |
| *Šīraka | Ancient Greek: Σιρακης, romanized: Sirakēs | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[25] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[27]
|
| *Skilura | Ancient Greek: Σκιλουρος, romanized: Skilouros | From an earlier form *Skiδura after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "sharp" and "victorious."[17] |
| *Skula | Ancient Greek: Σκυλης, romanized: Skulēs | From the Scythian endonym *Skula, itself a later dialectal form of *Skuδa resulting from a sound change from /δ/ to /l/.[30] |
| *Spakāya | Akkadian: 𒁹𒅖𒉺𒅗𒀀𒀀, romanized: Išpakāya[31] | Hypocoristic derivation from the word *spaka, meaning "dog."[32][33][14] |
| *Spargapis | Ancient Greek: Σπαργαπισης, romanized: Spargapisēs | Composed of:[13][14][34][15]
*Spargapis and *Spargapaiϑah are variants of the same name.[35][13][34] |
| *Spargapaiϑah | Ancient Greek: Σπαργαπειθης, romanized: Spargapeithēs | Composed of:[13][34][14][15]
*Spargapaiϑah and *Spargapis are variants of the same name.[35][13][34] |
| *Tigratavā | Ancient Greek: Τιργαταω, romanized: Tirgataō | Means "with the strength of an arrow." Composed of:[36][13]
|
| *Taumuriya | Ancient Greek: Τομυρις, romanized: Tomuris | Derived from a cognate of Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬊𐬑𐬨𐬀𐬥 (taoxman) and Old Persian 𐎫𐎢𐎶𐎠 (taumā), meaning "seed," "germ," and "kinship."[13] |
| *Uxtamazatā | Ancient Greek: Οκταμασαδης, romanized: Oktamasadēs | Means "possessing greatness through his words." Composed of:[13]
|
| *Varika | Ancient Greek: Ορικος, romanized: Orikos | Hypocorostic derivation from the word *vari-, meaning "chest armour, armour." Compare with Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (vaⁱri-), 𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬌 (uuari-) "chest armour."[13] |
Tribal names
editRecorded Scythian tribal names include:
| Name | Attested forms | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| *Haxāϑrauša | Ancient Greek: Αγαϑυρσοι, romanized: Agathursoi | Means "prospering the friend/socius." Composed of:[16]
|
| *Šīraka | Ancient Greek: Σιρακες, romanized: Sirakes | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[25] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[27]
|
| *Skuδa[37][38] | Akkadian: 𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀, romanized: Iškuzaya
Ancient Greek: Σκυθαι, romanized: Skuthai |
*Skuδa, the Scythian endonym,[37][38]
From the Proto-Indo-European root skewd-, itself meaning lit. 'shooter, archer', whence also English "shoot".[39] |
| *Skula | Ancient Greek: Σκωλοτοι, romanized: Skōlotoi[40][8] | Later form of *Skuδa resulting from the evolution of Proto-Scythian /δ/ into Scythian /l/.[37] |
| *Paralāta | Ancient Greek: Παραλαται, romanized: Paralatai[40][8] | Cognate with Young Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬜𐬁𐬙𐬀 (Paraδāta), meaning "placed at the front."[14] |
Place names
editSome scholars believe that many toponyms and hydronyms of the Russian and Ukrainian steppe have Scythian links. For example, Vasmer associates the name of the river Don with an assumed/reconstructed unattested Scythian word *dānu "water, river", and with Avestan dānu-, Pashto dand and Ossetian don.[41] The river names Don, Donets, Dnieper, Danube, and Dniester, and lake Donuzlav (the deepest one in Crimea) may also belong with the same word-group.[42]
Recorded Scythian place names include:
| Name | Attested forms | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| *Baurustāna | Ancient Greek: Βορυσθενης, romanized: Borusthenēs | Means "place of beavers." Composed of:[43] |
| *Dānu | Ancient Greek: Ταναις, romanized: Tanais | Means "river."[13] |
| *Pantikapa | Ancient Greek: Παντικαπαιον, romanized: Pantikapaion | Means "fish-path." Composed of:[44] |
| *Rahā | Ancient Greek: Ρα, romanized: Rha | Means "wetness." Compare with Avestan 𐬭𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬁 (raŋhā) and Vedic Sanskrit रसा (rasā́).[45] |
| *Varu | Ancient Greek: Οαρος, romanized: Oaros | Means "broad."[46] |
Herodotus' Scythian etymologies
editThe Greek historian Herodotus provides another source of Scythian; he reports that the Scythians called the Amazons Oiorpata, and explains the name as a compound of oior, meaning "man", and pata, meaning "to kill" (Hist. 4,110).
- Most scholars associate oior "man" with Avestan vīra- "man, hero", Sanskrit vīra-, Latin vir (gen. virī) "man, hero, husband",[47] PIE *wiHrós. Various explanations account for pata "kill":
- Persian pat- "(to) kill", patxuste "killed";[48]
- Sogdian pt- "(to) kill", ptgawsty "killed";[49]
- Ossetian fædyn "cleave", Sanskrit pātayati "fell", PIE *peth₂- "fall".[50]
- Avestan paiti- "lord", Sanskrit páti, PIE *pótis, cf. Lat. potestate (i.e. "man-ruler");[51]
- Ossetian maryn "kill", Pashto mrəl, Sanskrit mārayati, PIE *mer- "die" (confusion of Greek Μ and Π);[52]
- Alternatively, one scholar suggests Iranic aiwa- "one" + warah- "breast",[53] the Amazons believed to have removed a breast to aid drawing a bow, according to some ancient folklorists, and as reflected in Greek folk-etymology: a- (privative) + mazos, "without breast".
Elsewhere Herodotus explains the name of the mythical one-eyed tribe Arimaspoi as a compound of the Scythian words arima, meaning "one", and spu, meaning "eye" (Hist. 4,27).
- Some scholars connect arima "one" with Ossetian ærmæst "only", Avestic airime "quiet", Greek erēmos "empty", PIE *h₁(e)rh₁mo-?, and spu "eye" with Avestic spas- "foretell", Sanskrit spaś-, PIE *speḱ- "see".[54]
- However, Iranic usually expresses "one" and "eye" with words like aiwa- and čašman- (Ossetian īw and cæst).
- Other scholars reject Herodotus' etymology and derive the ethnonym Arimaspoi from Iranic aspa- "horse" instead.[55]
- Or the first part of the name may reflect something like Iranic raiwant- "rich", cf. Ossetian riwæ "rich".[56]
Scythian theonyms
edit| Name | Attested forms | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| *Tapatī́ | Ancient Greek: Ταβιτι, romanized: Tabiti | Means “the Burning One” or “the Flaming One.”[57][58] |
| *Api | Ancient Greek: Απι, romanized: Api
|
Related to Avestan 𐬀𐬞𐬌 (api), "water."[60] |
| *Targī̆tavah | Ancient Greek: Ταργιταος, romanized: Targitaos | Means "possessing the might of the goddess Tarkā." Composed of:[62]
|
| Ancient Greek: Αρτιμπασα, romanized: Artimpasa | Composed of:[60]
| |
| *Apatura | Ancient Greek: Απατουρος, romanized: Apatouros | Means "swift water." Composed of:[63]
|
| *Gaiϑāsūra | Ancient Greek: Γοιτοσυρος, romanized: Goitosuros | Composed of:[14]
|
Ancient Greek: Θαγιμασαδας, romanized: Thagimasadas
|
Composed of:
| |
| *Lipoxšaya | Ancient Greek: Λιποξαις, romanized: Lipoxais | From an earlier form *Δipoxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "king of radiance" and "king of heaven." Composed of:[65]
|
| *R̥buxšaya | Ancient Greek: Ἀρποξαις, romanized: Arpoxais | Means "king of the airspace." Composed of:[66]
|
| *Kolaxšaya | Ancient Greek: Κολαξαις, romanized: Kolaxais Latin: Colaxes |
From an earlier form *Koδaxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "axe-wielding king," where the axe also has the meaning of "sceptre," as well as "blacksmith king," in the sense of "ruling king of the lower world." Composed of:[67]
|
Pliny the Elder
editPliny the Elder's Natural History (AD 77–79) derives the name of the Caucasus from the Scythian kroy-khasis = ice-shining, white with snow (cf. Greek cryos = ice-cold).
Aristophanes
editIn the comedy works of Aristophanes, the dialects of various Greek people are accurately imitated. In his Thesmophoriazusae, a Scythian archer (a member of a police force in Athens) speaks broken Greek, consistently omitting the final -s (-ς) and -n (ν), using the lenis in place of the aspirate, and once using ks (ξ) in place of s (sigma); these may be used to elucidate the Scythian languages.[68]
Alanian
editThe Alanian language, as spoken by the Alans from about the 5th to the 11th centuries AD, formed a dialect directly descended from the earlier Scytho-Sarmatian languages, and forming in its turn the ancestor of the Ossetian language. Byzantine Greek authors recorded only a few fragments of this language.[69]
Unlike the Pontic Scythian language, Ossetian did not experience the evolution of the Proto-Scythian sound /d/ to /δ/ and then /l/, although the sound /d/ did evolve into /δ/ at the beginning of Ossetian words.[7]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Lubotsky 2002, p. 190.
- ^ Compare L. Zgusta, Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste [The Greek personal names of the Greek cities of the northern Black Sea coast], 1955.
- ^ Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 7 (3): 1–115. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2001.3.830.
- ^ E.g. Harmatta 1970.[page needed]
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Reichert, 1989.[page needed]
- ^ Novák 2013, p. 11.
- ^ a b c Ivantchik 1999a, p. 156-158.
- ^ a b c d Novák 2013, p. 10.
- ^ J.P.Mallory (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Dearborn. p. 310. ISBN 9781884964985.
- ^ Harmatta 1992, p. 412.
- ^ Lincoln, Bruce (2014). "Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10)". Nordlit. 33 (33): 19–34. doi:10.7557/13.3188.
- ^ Hinz 1975, p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Schmitt 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f Schmitt 2018a.
- ^ a b c Schmitt 2011.
- ^ a b Schwartz & Manaster Ramer 2019, p. 359-360.
- ^ a b Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 93.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2005a, p. 88.
- ^ Ivantchik 1999b, pp. 508–509: "Though Madyes himself is not mentioned in Akkadian texts, his father, the Scythian king Par-ta-tu-a, whose identification with Προτοθύης of Herodotus is certain."
- ^ Bukharin 2011, p. 63.
- ^ Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 94.
- ^ Melikov 2016, p. 78-80.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "PROTOTHYES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ Bukharin 2011.
- ^ a b c d Kullanda 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 273-274.
- ^ a b c Bukharin 2013, p. 270-271.
- ^ Alemany 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 183.
- ^ Ivantchik 2018.
- ^ "Išpakaia [CHIEFTAIN OF THE SCYTHIANS] (RN)". Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus. University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 188.
- ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 93–94.
- ^ a b c d Schmitt 2018b.
- ^ a b Hinz 1975, p. 226.
- ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World. Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
- ^ a b c Tokhtasyev 2005a, p. 68-84.
- ^ a b Tokhtasyev 2005b, p. 296.
- ^ Szemerényi 1980, p. 20-21.
- ^ a b Witczak 1999, p. 52-53.
- ^ M. Vasmer, Untersuchungen über die ältesten Wohnsitze der Slaven. Die Iranier in Südrußland, Leipzig 1923, 74.
- ^ Kretschmer, Paul (1935). "Zum Balkan-Skythischen". Glotta. 24 (1–2): 1–56 [7–56]. JSTOR 40265408.
- ^ Kullanda 2013, p. 39-41.
- ^ Diakonoff, I. M. (1985). "Media". In Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2.
- ^ Brunner, C. J. (1986). "ARANG". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
Middle Persian Arang/Arag renders Avestan Raŋhā, which is cognate with the Scythian name Rhâ (*Rahā) transmitted by Ptolemy
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 129.
- ^ "Vir – the Latin Dictionary".
- ^ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ^ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ^ L. Zgusta, "Skythisch οἰόρπατα «ἀνδροκτόνοι»", Annali dell’Istituto Universario Orientale di Napoli 1 (1959) pp. 151–156.
- ^ Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 15.
- ^ V.I. Abaev, Osetinskij jazyk i fol’klor, Moscow / Leningrad 1949, vol. 1, 172, 176, 188.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 94–98
- ^ J. Marquart, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran, Göttingen 1905, 90–92; Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 12; H.H. Schaeder, Iranica. I: Das Auge des Königs, Berlin 1934, 16–19.
- ^ W. Tomaschek, "Kritik der ältesten Nachrichten über den skythischen Norden", Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 116 (1888), 715–780, here: 761; K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin 1893, vol. 3, 305–306; R. Grousset, L’empire des steppes, Paris 1941, 37 n. 3; I. Lebedensky, Les Scythes. La civilisation des steppes (VIIe-IIIe siècles av. J.-C.), Paris 2001, 93.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 89–94
- ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-199-28075-9.
- ^ Jones, Lindsay (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 8205–8208.
- ^ Cheung, Johnny (2007). Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 378–379. ISBN 978-9-004-15496-4.
- ^ a b c Ustinova 1999, p. 67-128.
- ^ Raevskiy 1993, p. 17-18.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2013.
- ^ Ustinova 1999, p. 29-66.
- ^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1947). Zoroaster and His World. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. p. 516.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 29-31.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 31-32.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 48-52.
- ^ Donaldson, John William (1844). Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Philological Study of the Latin Language. J. and J. J. Deighton. p. 32.
- ^ Ladislav Zgusta, "The old Ossetian Inscription from the River Zelenčuk" (Veröffentlichungen der Iranischen Kommission = Sitzungsberichte der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse 486) Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1987. ISBN 3-7001-0994-6 in Kim, op.cit., 54.
Bibliography
edit- Alemany, Agustí (2006). "Onomastica Elamo-Scythica". In del Olmo Lete, Gregorio; Feliu, Lluís; Millet Albà, Adelina (eds.). Sapal tibnim mû illakû: Studies Presented to Joaquín Sanmartín on the Occasion of his 64th Birthday (in Spanish). Barcelona, Spain: Editorial AUSA. pp. 29–34. ISBN 978-8-488-81071-7.
- Bukharin, Mikhail Dmitrievich [in Russian] (2011). "Колаксай и его братья (античная традиция о происхождении царской власти у скифов" [Kolaxais and his Brothers (Classical Tradition on the Origin of the Royal Power of the Scythians)]. Аристей: вестник классической филологии и античной истории (in Russian). 3: 20–80. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
- Bukharin, Mikhail [in Russian] (2013). "К дискуссии о языке скифов: переход др.ир. *xš- > *s- и его отражение в древнегреческом" [Towards the Discussion on the Language of the Scythians: The Transition of OIr *xš- > *s- and its Reflection in the Ancient Greek]. Проблемы Истории, Филологии, Культуры [Problems of History, Philology, Culture]. 40 (2): 263–285. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
- Harmatta, J.: Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians, Szeged 1970.
- Harmatta, János (1992). "Languages and Literature in the Kushan Empire" (PDF). In Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Harmatta, János; Puri, Baij Nath; Etemadi, G. F.; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (eds.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Paris, France: UNESCO. pp. 407–431. ISBN 978-9-231-02846-5.
- Harmatta, János (1999). "Herodotus, Historian of the Cimmerians and the Scythians". In Reverdin, Olivier [in French]; Nenci, Giuseppe [in Italian] (eds.). Hérodote et les Peuples Non Grecs [Herodotus and the Non-Greek Peoples] (in French). Vandœuvres, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt pour l’étude de l’Antiquité classique. pp. 115–130. ISBN 978-3-774-92415-4.
- Hinge, George (2005). "Herodot zur skythischen Sprache. Arimaspen, Amazonen und die Entdeckung des Schwarzen Meeres". Glotta (in German). 81: 86–115.
- Hinz, Walther [in German] (1975). Altiranisches Sprachgut der Nebenüberleiferung [Old Iranian Language from Collateral Sources] (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01703-1.
- Humbach, Helmut & Klaus Faiss. Herodotus’s Scythians and Ptolemy’s Central Asia: Semasiological and Onomasiological Studies. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2012
- Ivantchik, Askold I. (1999a). "Une légende sur l'origine des Scythes (HDT. IV 5–7) et le problème des sources du Scythicos logos d'Hérodote" [A Legend on the Origin of the Scythians (Hdt. IV 5–7) and the problems of the sources of Herodotus's Scythicos logos]. Revue des Études Grecques [Review of Greek Studies]. 112 (1): 141–92. doi:10.3406/reg.1999.4355. JSTOR 44260011.
- Ivantchik, Askold (1999b). "The Scythian 'Rule Over Asia': the Classical Tradition and the Historical Reality". In Tsetskhladze, G.R. (ed.). Ancient Greeks West and East. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, United States: BRILL. pp. 497–520. ISBN 978-90-04-11190-5.
- Ivantchik, Askold I. (2005). Накануне колонизации. Северное Причерноморье и степные кочевники VIII – VII вв. до н.э. в античной литературной традиции: фольклор, литература и история [On the eve of Colonisation. The Northern Black Sea Region and the Steppe Nomads of the 8th – 7th centuries BC in the Ancient Literary Tradition: Folklore, Literature and History]. Berlin, Germany; Moscow, Russia: Eurasien-Abteilung des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Germany); Центр сравнительного изучения древних цивилизаций Института всеобщей истории РАН (Russia); Paleograph Press. ISBN 978-5-895-26015-9.
- Ivantchik, Askold (2018). "Scythians". Encyclopædia Iranica. New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
- Kullanda, S. V. [in Russian]; Raevskiy, D. S. [in Russian] (2004). "Эминак в ряду владык Скифии" [Eminakes, King of Scythia] (PDF). Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History] (in Russian). 248 (1): 79–95. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- Kullanda, S. V. [in Russian] (2013). "Скифские этимологии" [Scythian Etymologies]. In Kolganova, G. Y.; Kullanda, S. V. [in Russian]; Nemirovsky, A. A. [in Russian]; Petrova, A. A.; Safronov, A. V. (eds.). Иранский Мир II – I тыс. до н.э. Материалы международной научной конференции, посвященной памяти Эдвина Арвидовича Грантовского и Дмитрия Сергеевича Раевского. Выпуск VI [Iranian World 2nd – 1st millennium BC. Proceedings of the International Scientific conference Dedicated to the Memory of Edwin Arvidovich Grantovsky and Dmitry Sergeevich Raevsky. Issue VI]. Moscow, Russia: Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. pp. 38–48. ISBN 978-5-892-82576-4.
- Kullanda, Sergei [in Russian] (2014). "External relations of Scythian". Journal of Language Relationship. 11 (1). Piscataway, United States: Gorgias Press: 81–90. doi:10.31826/jlr-2014-110110. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
- Lubotsky, Alexander (2002). "Scythian elements in Old Iranian" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 116. The British Academy; azargoshnasp: 189–202.
- Mayrhofer, M.: Einiges zu den Skythen, ihrer Sprache, ihrem Nachleben. Vienna 2006.
- Melikov, Rauf (2016). "Скифские этнонимы и антропонимы в древневосточных клинописных текстах" [Scythian Ethnonyms and Anthroponyms in Ancient Eastern Cuneiform Texts]. Вопросы эпиграфики [Questions of Epigraphy]. 9: 74–96. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- Novák, Ľubomír (2013). Problem of Archaism and Innovation in the Eastern Iranian Languages. Prague, Czech Republic: Charles University. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
- Raevskiy, Dmitriy [in Russian] (1993). Marazov, Ivan (ed.). Scythian Mythology. Sofia, Bulgaria: Secor Publishers. ISBN 978-9-548-25002-3.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2003). "Die skythischen Personennamen bei Herodot" [Scythian Personal Names in Herodotus] (PDF). Annali dell'Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale" [Annals of the University of Naples "L'Orientale"] (in German). 63. Naples, Italy: Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale": 1–31.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2009). Iranisches Personennamenbuch [Book of Iranian Personal Names] (in German). Vol. 7.1a. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-700-16608-5.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2011). Iranisches Personennamenbuch [Book of Iranian Personal Names] (in German). Vol. 5.5a. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 341–342. ISBN 978-3-700-17142-3.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2018a). "SCYTHIAN LANGUAGE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2018b). "MASSAGETAE". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- Schwartz, Martin; Manaster Ramer, Alexis (2019). "Some Interlinguistic Iranian Conundrums". In Hintze, Almut; Durkin, Desmond; Naumann, Claudius (eds.). A Thousand Judgements: Festschrift for Maria Macuch. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-11094-5.
- Szemerényi, Oswald (1980). Four old Iranian ethnic names: Scythian – Skudra – Sogdian – Saka (PDF). Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 0-520-06864-5.
- Tokhtasyev, Sergey [in Russian] (2005a). "Проблема Скифского Языка в Современной Науке" [The Problem of the Scythian Language in Contemporary Studies]. In Cojocaru, Victor (ed.). Ethnic Contacts and Cultural Exchanges North and West of the Black Sea from the Greek Colonization to the Ottoman Conquest; [Proceedings of the International Symposium Ethnic contacts and Cultural Exchanges North and West of the Black Sea, Iaşi, June 12–17, 2005]. Iași, Romania: Trinitas. pp. 59–108. ISBN 978-9-737-83450-8.
- Tokhtasyev, Sergey [in Russian] (2005b). "Sauromatae - Syrmatae - Sarmatae". Херсонесский сборник [Chersonesian Collection] (in Russian). 14: 291–306. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
- Tokhtasyev, Sergey [in Russian] (2013). "Из ономастики Северного Причерноморья. XXI. Τράκανα" [On Onomastics of the Northern Black Sea region. XXI. Τράκανα]. Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History]. 281 (1): 193–196.
- Ustinova, Yulia (1999). The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, United States. ISBN 978-9-004-11231-5.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Witczak, K. T. (1999). "Скифский язык: опыт описания" [The Scythian Language: Attempt at Description]. Вопросы языкознания. 5: 50–59. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
- Zgusta, L.: Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste. Die ethnischen Verhältnisse, namentlich das Verhältnis der Skythen und Sarmaten, im Lichte der Namenforschung, Prague 1955.