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Nepali language

(Redirected from Nepali script)
This article is about the modern Indo-Aryan language. For the language known as Nepal Bhasa, see Newar language.

Nepali (English: /nɪˈpɔːli/;[3] Devanagari: नेपाली, [ˈnepali]) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia. It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal, where it also serves as a lingua franca. Nepali has official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and in the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal. It is spoken by about a quarter of Bhutan's population. Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Uttarakhand.[4] In Myanmar it is spoken by the Burmese Gurkhas. The Nepali diaspora in the Middle East, Brunei, Australia and worldwide also use the language.[5] Nepali is spoken by approximately 19 million native speakers and another 14 million as a second language.

Nepali
नेपाली
The word "Nepali" written in Devanagari script
Pronunciation[ˈnepali]
Native to
RegionHimalayas[a][1]
EthnicityKhas
Native speakers
L1: 19 million (2011–2021)[2]
L2: 14 million (2021 census)[2]
Total: 32 million[2]
Early forms
Signed Nepali
Official status
Official language in
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byNepal Academy
Language codes
ISO 639-1ne
ISO 639-2nep
ISO 639-3nep – inclusive code
Individual code:
npi – Nepali
nep Nepali (macrolanguage)
 npi Nepali (individual language)
Glottolognepa1254
Linguasphere59-AAF-d
Map showing distribution of Nepali speakers in South Asia. Dark red is areas with a Nepali-speaking majority or plurality, light red is where Nepali speakers are more than 20% of the population

Nepali is commonly classified within the Eastern Pahari group of the Northern zone of Indo-Aryan. The language originated from the Sinja Valley, Karnali Province then the capital city of the Khasa Kingdom around the 10th and 14th centuries. It developed proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most significantly to other Pahari languages. Nepali was originally spoken by the Khas people, an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to the Himalayan region of South Asia. The earliest inscription in the Nepali language is believed to be an inscription in Dullu, Dailekh District which was written around the reign of King Bhupal Damupal around the year 981. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language arose during the rule of the Kingdom of Gorkha (later became known as the Kingdom of Nepal) in the 16th century. Over the centuries, different dialects of the Nepali language with distinct influences from Sanskrit, Maithili, Hindi, and Bengali are believed to have emerged across different regions of the current-day Nepal and Uttarakhand, making Nepali the lingua franca.

Nepali is a highly fusional language with a relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations of honorific: low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana, which was followed by Bhanubhakta Acharya translating the Ramayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for the colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions".[6]

Etymology

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See also: Name of Nepal
 
A map showing languages of the Indian subcontinent c. 1858; It refers to the language as "Nepalee".

The term Nepali derived from Nepal was officially adopted by the Government of Nepal in 1933, when Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan.[7] Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled "Shriman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.[8] However, the term Nepali was used before the official adoption notably by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh, now considered one of the national heroes of Nepal, who advocated for the embracement of the term.[9]

The initial name of Nepali language was "Khas Kura" (खस कुरा), meaning language or speech of the Khas people, who are descended from the ancient Khasas of Mahabharata, as the language developed during the rule of the Khasa Kingdom in the western Nepal.[10][11] Following the Unification of Nepal led by Shah dynasty's Prithvi Narayan Shah, Nepali language became known as Gorakhā Bhāṣā (गोरखा भाषा; language of the Gorkhas) as it was spoken by Gorkhas.[12][13] The people living in the Pahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the language Parvate Kurā (पर्वते कुरा), meaning "the speech of the hills".[14][15]

History

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Origin and development

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See also: Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhraṃśa, Khasa Prakrit language, and Dardic languages
 
A simplified overview of the Indo-Aryan language family.

Early forms of present-day Nepali developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa Vernaculars of present-day western Nepal in the 10th–14th centuries, during the times of the Khasa Kingdom.[16] The language evolved from Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Apabhraṃśa.[16] Following the decline of the Khasa Kingdom, it was divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in Karnali-Bheri region and Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) in Gandaki region.[16] The currently popular variant of Nepali is believed to have originated around 500 years ago with the mass migration of a branch of Khas people from the Karnali-Bheri-Seti eastward to settle in lower valleys of the Karnali and the Gandaki basin.[17][16]

During the times of Sena dynasty, who ruled a vast area in Terai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages including Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha and Maithili.[16] Nepali speakers and Senas had a close connect, subsequently, the language became the lingua franca in the area.[16] As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages.[16] In the Kathmandu Valley (then known as Nepal Mandala), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during the reigns of Lakshmi Narasimha Malla and Pratap Malla, which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley.[18]

Middle Nepali

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Copper Inscription by King of Doti, Raika Mandhata Shahi, at Saka Era 1612 (1747 BS) in old Nepali language using Devanagari script

The institutionalisation of the Nepali language is believed to have started with the Shah kings of Gorkha Kingdom, in the modern day Gorkha District of Nepal.[19] Following the Unification of Nepal, the language moved to the court of the Kingdom of Nepal in the 18th century, where it became the state language.[19] One of the earliest works in the Middile Nepali is written during the reign of Ram Shah, King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer called Ram Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah).[19] Prithvi Narayan Shah's Divyopadesh, written toward the end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature.[20]

 
Manuscript of Bhanubhakta Acharya's Bhanubhakta Ramayana led to "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal.

During this time Nepali developed a standardised prose in the Lal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records.[19] The language of the Lal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography.[21] Few changes including changing Kari (करि) to Gari (गरि) and merging Hunu (हुनु) with cha (छ) to create huncha (हुन्छ) were done.[21] The most prominent work written during this time was Bhanubhakta Acharya's Bhanubhakta Ramayana, a translation of the epic Ramayana from Sanskrit to Nepali for the first time.[22] Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively to Prithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal.[23][24]

Modern Nepali

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See also: Nepali Language Movement

The modern period of Nepali begins in the early 20th century.[6] During this time the ruling Rana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali the language of education, notably, by Dev Shumsher and Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, who established Gorkhapatra, and the Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively.[25][7] At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared to Hindi and Bengali languages, a movement notably in Banaras, and Darjeeling was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following the 1951 Nepalese revolution and during the Panchayat system.[25] In 1957, Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science.[26] During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a "One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation" ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time is considered to be a Golden Age for the language.[27][28]

 
A statue of Bhanubhakta Acharya at Chowrasta, Darjeeling

In West Bengal, Nepali language was recognised by West Bengal Government in 1961 as the official language for the Darjeeling district, and Kalimpong and Kurseong.[29] The Nepali Language Movement took place in India around 1980s to include Nepali language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.[30] In 1977, Nepali was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of Indian literature.[31] After Sikkim was annexed by India, the Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977, made Nepali as one of the official languages of state.[32] On 20 August 1992, the Lok Sabha passed a motion to add the Nepali language to the Eighth Schedule.[33]

Official status

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Nepali written in the Devanagari script is the official language of Nepal.[34][35]

On 31 August 1992, Nepali was added to the list of scheduled languages of India.[36] Nepali is the official language of the state of Sikkim and of Gorkhaland, West Bengal.

Despite being spoken by about a quarter of the population,[37] Nepalese has no official status in Bhutan.[38]

Geographic distribution

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Nepal

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Geographic distribution of the Nepali language as their mother tongue in the Indian subcontinent.

According to the 2011 national census, 44.6% of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as its first language.[39] and 32.8% speak Nepali as a second language.[40] Ethnologue reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal (from the 2011 census).[40] It is spoken by 20,250,952, about 77.20% of the population, as their first language and second language.[41]

India

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Total number of Nepali speakers in India by state (2011 census)[42]

  West Bengal (36%)
  Assam (20%)
  Sikkim (12%)
  Rest of Northeast India (8%)
  UP and Uttarakhand (12%)
  Other states (12%)

According to the 2011 census of India, there were a total of 2,926,168 Nepali language speakers in India.[43]

Nepali speakers in India by state[44][45]
State Nepali speakers (2011 census)
West Bengal 1,155,375
Assam 596,210
Sikkim 382,200
Uttarakhand 106,399
Arunachal Pradesh 95,317
Himachal Pradesh 89,508
Maharashtra 75,683
Manipur 63,756
Meghalaya 54,716
Nagaland 43,481
Delhi National Capital Territory 37,468
Gujarat 25,142
Jammu and Kashmir 22,138
Punjab 22,061
Haryana 19,914
Karnataka 19,274
Uttar Pradesh 18,743
Jharkhand 16,956
Andhra Pradesh 11,551
Mizoram 8,994
Madhya Pradesh 8,724
Odisha 8,654
Rajasthan 7,636
Tamil Nadu 7,575
Chandigarh 6,546
Bihar 5,727
Kerala 3,665
Chhattisgarh 3,431
Tripura 2,787
Goa 2,600
Daman and Diu 1,401
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 1,152
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 949
Puducherry 431
Lakshadweep 4

Bhutan

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In Bhutan, native Nepali speakers, known as Lhotshampa, are estimated at 35%[46] of the population. This number includes displaced Bhutanese refugees, with unofficial estimates of the ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people).[47]

Australia

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Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state of Tasmania, where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population,[48] and fifth-most spoken language in the Northern Territory, Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population.[49] Nepali is the most spoken language other than English in Rockdale and Kogarah. In Granville, Campsie and Ashfield it is the second most commonly spoken language other than English. Allawah and Hurstville have third most Nepali speaking population in New South Wales. There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia.

International

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International geographic distribution
Country Speaker population Notes
  Myanmar 300,000-500,000[50]
  Australia 133,068[51] 2021 census
  Hong Kong 25,472[52] 2016 census
  Canada 13,375[53] 2016 census
  Finland 7,234[54] 2023 statistics

Phonology

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Main article: Nepali phonology

Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below.

Vowels

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Nepali vowel phonemes
Front Central Back
Close i ĩ u ũ
Close-mid e ẽ o
Open-mid ʌ ʌ̃
Open a ã

Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and five nasal vowels. /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it is often in free variation with [õ].

Nepali has ten diphthongs: /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/.

Consonants

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Nepali consonant phonemes
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨म⟩ n ⟨न/ञ⟩ (ɳ ⟨ण⟩) ŋ ⟨ङ⟩
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless unaspirated p ⟨प⟩ t ⟨त⟩ t͡s ⟨च⟩ ʈ ⟨ट⟩ k ⟨क⟩
aspirated pʰ ⟨फ⟩ tʰ ⟨थ⟩ t͡sʰ ⟨छ⟩ ʈʰ ⟨ठ⟩ kʰ ⟨ख⟩
voiced unaspirated b ⟨ब⟩ d ⟨द⟩ d͡z ⟨ज⟩ ɖ ⟨ड⟩ ɡ ⟨ग⟩
aspirated bʱ ⟨भ⟩ dʱ ⟨ध⟩ d͡zʱ ⟨ /झ⟩ ɖʱ ⟨ढ⟩ ɡʱ ⟨घ⟩
Fricative s ⟨श/ष/स⟩ ɦ ⟨ह⟩
Rhotic r ⟨र⟩
Approximant (w ⟨व⟩) l ⟨ल⟩ (j ⟨य⟩)

[j] and [w] are nonsyllabic allophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has a geminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/ बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/ नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. The murmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminate aspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [ɸ], /bʱ/ as [β], /kʰ/ as [x], and /ɡʱ/ as [ɣ]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi].[55]

Typically, sounds transcribed with the retroflex symbols ⟨ʈ, ʈʰ, ɖ, ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [ʈ, ʈʰ, ɖ, ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ, ɾ̠, n̠, ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions.[55]

Final schwas may or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain the final schwa:

  1. Schwa is retained if the final syllable is a conjunct consonant. अन्त (anta, 'end'), सम्बन्ध (sambandha, 'relation'), श्रेष्ठ (śreṣṭha, 'greatest'/a last name).
    Exceptions: conjuncts such as ञ्च ञ्ज in मञ्च (mañc, 'stage') गञ्ज (gañj, 'city') and occasionally the last name पन्त (panta/pant).
  2. For any verb form the final schwa is always retained unless the schwa-cancelling halanta is present. हुन्छ (huncha, 'it happens'), भएर (bhaera, 'in happening so; therefore'), गएछ (gaecha, 'he apparently went'), but छन् (chan, 'they are'), गईन् (gain, 'she went'). Meanings may change with the wrong orthography: गईन (gaina, 'she didn't go') vs गईन् (gain, 'she went').
  3. Adverbs, onomatopoeia and postpositions usually maintain the schwa and if they don't, halanta is acquired: अब (aba 'now'), तिर (tira, 'towards'), आज (āja, 'today') सिम्सिम (simsim 'drizzle') vs झन् (jhan, 'more').
  4. Few exceptional nouns retain the schwa such as: दु:ख (dukha, 'suffering'), सुख (sukha, 'pleasure').

Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed.

Grammar

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Main article: Nepali grammar

Nepali is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations of honorifics: low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. There is also a separate highest level honorific, which was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves.[56] Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily on periphrasis, a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages.[57]

Writing system

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See also: Devanagari script

Nepali is generally written in Devanagari script. In certain regions, the Tibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation.[58][59]

In the section below Nepali is represented in Latin transliteration using the IAST scheme and IPA. The chief features are: subscript dots for retroflex consonants; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels; h denoting aspirated plosives. Tildes denote nasalised vowels.

Consonants
क
IPA: /kʌ/
ख
IPA: /kʰʌ/, /xʌ/
ग
IPA: /ɡʌ/
घ
IPA: /ɡʱʌ/, /ɣʌ/
ङ
IPA: /ŋʌ/
च
IPA: /t͡sʌ/
छ
IPA: /t͡sʰʌ/
ज
IPA: /d͡zʌ/
 /झ
IPA: /d͡zʱʌ/
ञ
IPA: /nʌ/
ट
IPA: /ʈʌ/
ठ
IPA: /ʈʰʌ/
ड
IPA: /ɖʌ/
ढ
IPA: /ɖʱʌ/
ण
IPA: /nʌ/, /ɳʌ/
त
IPA: /tʌ/
थ
IPA: /tʰʌ/
द
IPA: /dʌ/
ध
IPA: /dʱʌ/
न
IPA: /nʌ/
प
IPA: /pʌ/
फ
IPA: /pʰʌ/, /ɸʌ/
ब
IPA: /bʌ/
भ
IPA: /bʱʌ/, /βʌ/
म
IPA: /mʌ/
य
IPA: /jʌ/
र
IPA: /rʌ/
ल
IPA: /lʌ/
व
IPA: /wʌ/
श
IPA: /sʌ/
ष
IPA: /sʌ/, /kʰʌ/
स
IPA: /sʌ/
ह
IPA: /ɦʌ/
Ligatures
क + ष
क्ष
IPA: /t͡sʰjʌ/, /ksʌ/
त + र
त्र
IPA: /trʌ/
ज + ञ
ज्ञ
IPA: /ɡjʌ/
Diacritics combined with the letter ब
Vowels Consonants
अ
a
IPA: /ʌ/
आ
ā
IPA: /a/
इ
i
IPA: /i/
ई
ī
IPA: /i/
उ
u
IPA: /u/
ऊ
ū
IPA: /u/
ए
e
IPA: /e/
ऐ
ai
IPA: /i̯/
ओ
o
IPA: /o/
औ
au
IPA: /u̯/
ऋ
ṛ
IPA: /r̩/
अं
ṃ
IPA: /◌̃/
अः
ḥ
IPA: /ɦ/
अँ
ã
IPA: /ʌ̃/
◌ा
◌ि
◌ी
◌ु
◌ू
◌े
◌ै
◌ो
◌ौ
◌ृ
◌ं
ः
◌ँ
ब
ब
ब +◌ा
बा
ब + ◌ि
बि
ब + ◌ी
बी
ब + ◌ु
बु
ब + ◌ू
बू
ब + ◌े
बे
ब + ◌ै
बै
ब + ◌ो
बो
ब + ◌ौ
बौ
ब + ◌ृ
बृ
ब + ◌ं
बं
ब + ः
बः
ब + ◌ँ
बँ

Literature

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Main article: Nepali literature
 
Bhanubhakta Acharya, Aadi Kavi in Nepali-language literature

Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled by Adhyatma Ramayana; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, and Balkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable.

Dialects

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Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi.[40] These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli and Acchami is low.[40] The dialect of the Nepali language spoken in Karnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known by its old name as Khas Bhasa in Karnali.[10]

Sample text

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The following is a sample text in Nepali, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with a transliteration (IAST) and transcription (IPA).[60]

Nepali in Devanagari Script
धारा १. सबै व्यक्तिहरू जन्मजात स्वतन्त्र हुन् ती सबैको समान अधिकार र महत्व छ। निजहरूमा विचार शक्ति र सद्विचार भएकोले निजहरूले आपसमा भातृत्वको भावनाबाट व्यवहार गर्नु पर्छ।
Transliteration (ISO)
Dhārā 1. Sabai vyaktiharū janmajāt svatantra hun tī sabaiko samān adhikār ra mahatva cha. Nijharūmā vicār śakti ra sadvicār bhaekole nijharūle āpasmā bhatṛtvako bhāvanabāṭa vyavahār garnu parcha.
Transcription (IPA)
[dʱaɾa ek sʌbʌi̯ bektiɦʌɾu d͡zʌnmʌd͡zat sotʌntɾʌ ɦun ti sʌbʌi̯ko sʌman ʌd(ʱ)ikaɾ rʌ mʌːtːo t͡sʰʌ nid͡zɦʌɾuma bit͡saɾ sʌkti ɾʌ sʌdbit͡sar bʱʌekole nid͡zɦʌɾule apʌsma bʱatɾitːoko bʱawʌnabaʈʌ bebaːr ɡʌɾnu pʌɾt͡sʰʌ]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1. All human-beings from-birth independent are their all equal right and importance is. In themselves, intellect and conscience {endowed therefore} they {one another} brotherhood's spirit {treatment with} do must.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Richard Burghart 1984, pp. 118–119.
  2. ^ a b c Nepali at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)  
    Nepali at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)  
  3. ^ "Nepali | Definition of Nepali by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Nepali". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 23 July 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  4. ^ "52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India" (PDF). nclm.nic.in. Ministry of Minority Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  5. ^ "Nepali language | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  6. ^ a b "Nepali literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Historically spoken just by the Karnali Khas people, now spoken as the lingua franca in Nepal.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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Nepali edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Nepali.
 
Look up Category:Nepali language in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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