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Narasimha

(Redirected from Nrsimha)
For other uses, see Narasimha (disambiguation).

Narasimha (Sanskrit: नरसिंह, lit. 'man-lion', IAST: Narasiṃha), is the fourth avatara of the Hindu god Vishnu.[2] He incarnated as a part-lion, part-man and killed Hiranyakashipu, ended religious persecution and calamity on earth, and restored dharma.[3][4] Narasimha has three eyes, and is in the God of Destruction in Vaishnavism; he who destroys the entire universe at destruction (Pralaya). Hence, he is known as Kala (time) or Mahakala (great-time), or Parakala (beyond time) in his names. There exists a matha (monastery) dedicated to him by the name of Parakala Matha at Mysuru in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.[5] Narasimha is the God of Yoga, as Yoga-Narasimha.[6][7]

Narasimha
God of Protection, Destruction, Yoga and Kala (Time); The Destroyer of Evil and Fear
Avatara of Vishnu
Member of Dashavatara
A Statue of Narasimha in Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra, India
Devanagariनरसिंह
Sanskrit transliterationNarasimha
AffiliationVaishnavism, Dashavatara
AbodeVaikuntha, Kshira Sagara
WeaponSudarshana Chakra, Kaumodaki, Nails
FestivalsNarasimha Jayanti, Holi
ConsortLakshmi[1]
Dashavatara Sequence
PredecessorVaraha
SuccessorVamana

Narasimha has a human torso and lower body, with a lion face and claws, with the asura Hiranyakashipu being disemboweled and killed by him in his lap. The asura was the powerful elder brother of the evil Hiranyaksha, who had been previously killed by Vishnu as Varaha, and thus hated the latter.[8] Hiranyakashipu gained a boon from Brahma due to which he could not be killed during the day or night, inside or outside the house; neither in the sky nor on land nor in Svarga nor in Patala, by any weapon or hand, nor by humans, deities, demons, or animals.[9] Endowed with this boon, he began to wreak chaos and havoc, persecuting all the devotees of Vishnu, including his own son Prahlada.[3][9][10] Vishnu, cognisant of the asura's boon, creatively assumed a mixed form that was neither human nor animal as a lion in the name of Narasimha, and Narashima disemboweled and killed Hiranyakashipu and at evening, which is neither day nor night, at the threshold of his palace, which was neither inside nor outside, upon his lap, which is neither sky nor land, and with his claws, which is neither weapons nor hands.[3] Narasimha is known primarily as the 'Great Protector' who specifically defends and protects his devotees from evil and destroys evil.[11] The most popular Narasimha myth is the legend of his protection of his devotee Prahlada, and the killing of Prahlada's evil father and demon Hiranyakashipu.[12]

Narasimha is one of the major deities in Vaishnavism, and his legends are revered in Vaikhanasas, Sri Vaishnavism, Sadha Vaishnavism,[13] and various other Vaishnava traditions of Hinduism. He is celebrated in many regional Hindu temples, texts, performance arts, and festivals such as the Hindu festival of colours of the spring, called Holi.[9][14][page needed]

One of the earliest representation of Narasimha, dating back to the 4th-century CE, is from Kondamotu in Coastal Andhra.[15][16] Other older known artworks of Narasimha have been found at several sites across Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, such as at the Mathura archaeological site. These have been variously dated between the 2nd century CE and the 4th century CE.[17]

Etymology

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Vishnu and his avataras (Vaikuntha Chaturmurti): Vishnu present as Krishna as a human , Narasimha as a lion, Varaha as a boar and Rama as a human. Art of Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum.[18]

In Sanskrit, the word Narasimha consists of two words "nara" which means man, and "simha" which means lion, referring to the man-lion avatara of Vishnu.[3][9]

His other names are Agnilochana (अग्निलोचन) – the one who has fiery eyes, Bhairavadambara (भैरवडम्बर) – the one who causes terror by roaring, Karala (कराल) – the one who has a wide mouth and projecting teeth, Hiranyakashipumardana (हिरण्यकषिपुमर्दान) – the one who killed Hiranyakashipu, Nakhastra (नखास्त्र) – the one for whom nails are his weapons, Simhavadana (सिंहवदन) – the one who has a lion face and Simha (सिंह) – the one who is a lion.[19]

Texts

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Narasimha, 5th century, Ramtek Kevala Narasimha temple.

Vedas

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The Vishnu hymn 1.154 of the Rigveda (1700-1200 BCE) contains a verse which shows Vishnu as Narasimha as a "wild lion, powerful, prowling, mountain-roaming",[20] which is Vishnu as Narasimha. Another hymn 8.14 says the story of Indra killing Namuci, that with "water foam you tore off, Indra, the head of Namuci and killed him, killing all demons",.[21]

The full story of Indra killing Namuci is found in Shatapatha Brahmana (7th - 6th century BCE) of the Yajurveda in chapter 12.7.3.v Other references to Narasimha are found in the Vedic texts Vajaseneyi Samhita 10.34, Pancavimsa Brahmana 12.6.8 and Taittiriya Brahmana 1.7.1.6.[21]

The story of Indra killing Namuci

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Narasimha has the same story as Indra killing Namuci in the Vedas.[21][22] Indra is the dharmic King of Heaven of the Devas and Devis who commands lightning, thunder, rain and rivers, while Namuci is a deceptive demon Asura in competition for power. Namuci tells peace to Indra, which Indra accepts. He demands Indra to promise that he will neither try to kill him with his "palm of the hand nor with the fist", neither in day nor in night, neither with "anything that is dry" nor with "anything that is wet". Indra agrees.[21][23]

After the deal is done, Namuci carries away all that nourishes the gods and goddesses: the Soma drink, the essence of food and the strength of Indra. The leader of the gods and goddesses finds himself conflicted and feels bound by his promise. Indra then meets Sarasvati (goddess of knowledge) and the Ashvinas.[21] They reply they will deal with Namuci, get it all back, if Indra agrees to share his powers, the essence of food and the Soma drink with them. Indra agrees. The gods and the goddess then come up with a creative plan. They pour out a foam of water with a thunderbolt, and Indra takes a thunderbolt in his hand and Indra kills Namuci in evening.[21]

After Namuci is killed, the gods and goddesses get all the powers back, but discover that Namuci had drunk the Soma already. The good was thus now mixed with his evil of his blood, which they did not want to drink. So, they extract the good out from the evil. Thus, good returns to the gods and goddesses, the evil is destroyed.[21]

According to Deborah Soifer, this story is the same as the story of Narasimha, it has the same plot, the same "neither-nor" constraints, and the same creative powers of the good kills and destroys the evil. Further, the Sanskrit words and phrasing such as "neither palm nor fist" and "neither day nor night" in the later Hindu texts is the same as in the Vedic texts. This suggests a link and continuity between the Vedic story of Indra killing Namuci and the story of Narasimha killing Hiranyakashipu in the Puranas.[21] According to Walter Ruben, both stories along with several other stories in ancient and medieval texts reflect the Indian Subcontinental tradition of killing and destroying despots and tyrants who abuse power.[24]

Puranas

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Vishnu as Narasimha is mentioned in a variety of Puranas, in 17 Puranas, Vishnu as Narasimha mentioned.[25] The Valmiki Ramayana (7.24), Harivamsa (41 & 3.41-47), Vishnu Purana (1.16-20), Bhagavata Purana (Canto 7),[26] Agni Purana (4.2-3), Brahmanda Purana (2.5.3-29), Vayu Purana (67.61-66), Brahma Purana (213.44-79), Vishnudharmottara Purana (1.54), Kurma Purana (1.15.18-72), Matsya Purana (161-163), Padma Purana (5.42), Shiva Purana (2.5.43 & 3.10-12), Linga Purana (1.95-96) and Skanda Purana (2.18.60-130) all mention Vishnu as Narasimha.[27][28] In all these Puranas, Narasimha is described as the God of Destruction, who does destruction at the time of Pralaya and described as Kala.[6] Narasimha is also described as having three eyes just like Shiva and does destruction with fire coming from his third eye.[7]

Sangam literature

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The Paripatal (Dated between 300 BCE to 300 CE) (Tamil: பரிபாடல், meaning the paripatal-metre anthology) is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies (Ettutokai) in Sangam literature.[29] Kamil Zvelebil states that the hymns dedicated to Vishnu and Murugan has branded the Paripatal as a Sanskrit plagiat within the so-called Sangam texts.[30]

The Story of Narasimha in Paripadal

O Lord with faultless red eyes! With
burning hatred in his mind and drying up the sandal paste on his chest, Hiranyakashipu, the evil king, fought with his son Prahlada for singing your praises, causing on him great shock. Prahlada was not worried about Hiranyakashipu who deserved disrespect. You placed Prahlada’s away because of your love for him. You attacked and caught Hiranyakashipu with your great strength, catching his mountain-like chest as drums of deities roared like thunder. You disemboweled and killed Hiranyakashipu alive with your claws and wore Hiranyakashipu's organs as a garland and threw Hiranyakashipu's organs away, along with broken pieces of a pillar which you blasted and came out, as Narasimha.

Paripadal, poem 4, Verses 10 - 21[31]

Other texts

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Narasimha is also found in and is the focus of Narasimha Tapaniya Upanishad.[32][33]

History

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Prahlada legend

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Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu, manuscript folio from Bhagavata Purana, 1760 CE - 1770 CE.

The Bhagavata Purana says that Vishnu, in his previous avatara as Varaha, killed the evil demon Hiranyaksha. The younger brother of Hiranyaksha, demon king Hiranyakashipu, hated Vishnu and wanted revenge.[8] He undertook many years of austere penance to gain special powers. Thereafter, Brahma offered Hiranyakashipu a boon. Hiranyakashipu asked, "Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at nighttime, nor in the ground or in the sky. Grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapons or hands, nor by any human or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you. Grant me, further, that I not be killed by any deity or demon or by any other organisms and divinities." Brahma granted him the boon, and Hiranyakashipu gained these powers.[9]

Hiranyakashipu, once powerful and invincible with the new boon, began to persecute those who were devotees of Vishnu. Hiranyakashipu had a son, Prahlada, who disagreed and rebelled against his father. Prahlada became a devotee of Vishnu. This angered Hiranyakashipu, who tried to kill the boy but with each attempt, Prahlada was protected by Vishnu's mystical power. When asked, Prahlada refused to acknowledge his father as the supreme lord of the universe and said that Vishnu is omnipresent.

Hiranyakashipu pointed to a nearby pillar and asked if 'his Vishnu' is in it and said to his son Prahlada, "O most unfortunate Prahlada, you have always described a supreme being other than me, a supreme being who is above everything, who is the controller of everyone, and who is all-pervading. But where is He? If He is everywhere, then why is He not present before me in this pillar?" Prahlada then answered, "He was, He is, He will be."[34]

 
Narasimha emerging from a pillar and disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu (detail), manuscript folio from a Bhagavata Purana, 1760 CE - 1770 CE.

Hiranyakashipu, unable to control his anger, smashed the pillar with his mace, and following a tumultuous sound, Vishnu in the form of Narasimha appeared from it and moved to attack Hiranyakashipu in defense of Prahlada. In order to kill Hiranyakashipu and not upset the boon given by Brahma, the form of Narasimha was chosen. Hiranyakashipu could not be killed by human, deity or animal. Narasimha was none of these, as he is a form of Vishnu incarnated raa as a part-human, part-lion. He came upon Hiranyakashipu at twilight (when it is neither day nor night) on the threshold of a courtyard (neither indoors nor out), and put the demon on his thighs (neither earth nor space). Using his sharp fingernails (neither animate nor inanimate) as weapons, he disemboweled and killed Hiranyakashipu alive.[34]

Narasimha was in rage and seeing this, Brahma, Shiva and all Hindu gods and goddesses sent Prahlada to pacify him. Prahlada prayed to Narasimha and Ugra Narasimha now became peaceful Soumya Narasimha.[35][36][37]

The Kurma Purana describes the preceding battle between the Vishnu and demonic forces in which he destroys powerful weapons of Asuras and Asuris and Vishnu killed all asuras and asuris. According to Soifer, it describes how Prahlada's brothers and sisters headed by Anuhrada and thousands of other demons were led to the valley of death by the man-lion who was Vishnu as Narasimha and are all killed.[38] The same episode occurs in the Matsya Purana, several chapters after Narasimha disemboweled and killed Hiranyakashipu.[14]

Vaishnava and Shaiva legends

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In a story of this incident, the Vaishnava and Shaiva scriptures say that gods Vishnu and Shiva assumed the avataras of Gandaberunda as Narasimha and Sharabha to destroy the chaos that happened in the universe. After disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu, Narasimha's power was wrongly thought to threaten the world by the deities. At the behest of the gods and goddesses, Shiva sent his form of Virabhadra to defeat Narasimha. When Narasimha defeated and drove Virabhadra away, Vishnu and Shiva manifested as Gandaberunda as Narasimha and Sharabha. Narasimha as Gandabherunda and Sharabha fought for 18 days. Narasimha as Gandaberunda disemboweled and killed Sharabha on the 18th day, after which Gandaberunda as Narasimha and Sharabha took their true forms of Vishnu and Shiva and went to their respective heavens of Vaikuntha and Kailasha respectively.

Iconography

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A Painting of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu surrounded by Prahlada and Kayadhu by Raja Ravi Varma

Narasimha has a lion face with clawed fingers fused with a human body. He is coming out of a pillar signifying that he is everywhere, in everything, in everyone. Some temples such as at Ahobilam, Andhra Pradesh, the iconography is more extensive, and includes nine other icons of Narasimha:[9]

  • Prahladavarada Narasimha: Narasimha blessing Prahlada.
  • Yogananda Narasimha: Narasimha as serene and peaceful, teaching yoga.
  • Guha Narasimha: Narasimha in a pillar of Hiranyakashipu's palace to disembowel and kill Hiranyakashipu.
  • Ugra Narasimha: Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu.
  • Vira Narasimha: Narasimha killing all asuras and asuris.
  • Lakshmi Narasimha: Vishnu as Narasimha with Lakshmi as Kanakavalli.
  • Jvala Narasimha: Narasimha emitting flames of power.
  • Sarvatomukha Narasimha: Narasimha with a powerful face.
  • Bhishana Narasimha: A ferocious form of Narasimha.
  • Bhadra Narasimha: Blessing form of Narasimha.
  • Mrityormrityu Narasimha: Narasimha destroying death of Prahlada by disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu.

The earliest known iconography of Narasimha is variously dated to between the 2nd and the 4th-century CE, and these have been found in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.[17] Most images and temples of Narasimha are found in the peninsular region of India, but important ancient and medieval archeological sites containing Narasimha icons are also found as Vaikuntha Chaturmurti in Kashmir and Khajuraho temples,[39] while single face versions are found in Garhwa and Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and in Ellora Caves (Maharashtra).[9] Other major temples with notable icons of Narasimha are found in Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the Vijayanagara Empire ruins in Karnataka.[9] Some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples, such as those found in Tigava and Eran (Madhya Pradesh), dated to early 5th-century, include Narasimha along with other avatars of Vishnu.[17] The Thuravoor Temple is the most important shrine to Narasimha in Kerala; the form of Narasimha there is known as Vatakanappan.

Significance

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Narasimha, Chola period, 12th - 13th century CE, Tamil Nadu. from Guimet Museum, Paris.

Narasimha is a significant iconic symbol of creative resistance, hope against odds, victory over persecution, and destruction of evil. He is the destructor of not only external evil, but also one's own inner evil of "body, speech, and mind" states Pratapaditya Pal.[40]

In Indian Subcontinental art – sculptures, bronzes and paintings – Vishnu's incarnation as Narasimha is one of the most chosen incarnations in Dashavatara of Vishnu and amongst all Dashavatara of Vishnu, Narasimha is popular.

Narasimha is worshipped across Telangana and Andhra Pradesh States in numerous forms.[41] Although, it is common that each of the temples contain depictions of Narasimha in more than one form, Ahobilam contains nine temples of Narasimha dedicated to the nine forms of Narasimha. Statues of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu are common, and this image of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu is commonly worshipped in temples, and it is drawn.

Coins, inscriptions and terracotta

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Narasimha is influential in the 5th-century CE, when various Gupta Empire rulers minted coins with his images or sponsored inscriptions that associated the powers of Narasimha with their own. The rulers thus showed their rule as someone like Narasimha who killed and destroyed evil.[42] Some of the coins of the Kushan era show Narasimha, showing his influence.[43]

Some of the oldest Narasimha terracotta artworks have been dated to about the 2nd century CE, such as those discovered in Kaushambi.[44] A nearly complete, exquisitely carved standing Narasimha statue, wearing a pancha, with personified attributes near him has been found at the Mathura archeological site and is dated to the 6th century CE.[45]

Performance arts

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The story of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu is a part of various Indian classical dance repertoire. For example, Kathakali theatre has included the story of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu in battle, and performances of Prahlada Charitam with Narasimha has been one of the popular performances in Kerala.[46] Similarly, the Bhagavata Mela dance-drama performance arts of Tamil Nadu traditionally celebrate the annual Narasimha Jayanti festival by performing the story within regional Narasimha temples.[47]

Prayers

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A number of prayers have been written in to Narasimha. These include:[48]

  • The Narasimha Maha Mantra.
  • Narasimha Pranama Mantra.
  • Dashavatara Stotra by Jayadeva.
  • Kamashikha Ashtakam by Vedanta Desika.
  • Naalayira Divya Prabandham Pasuram 2954.[49]
  • Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Karavalamba Stotram by Adi Shankara.[50]

Early images

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A Statue of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakashipu

In Andhra Pradesh, a panel dating to third-fourth century CE shows a full theriomorphic squatting lion with two extra human arms behind his shoulders holding a conch and a discus. This lion, flanked by five heroes (Viras), is Narasimha.[51] Standing cult images of Narasimha from the early Gupta period, survive from temples at Tigowa and Eran.[52] These sculptures are two-armed, long maned, frontal, wearing only a lower garment, and with no demon-figure of Hiranyakashipu. Statues of Narasimha disemboweling and killing Hiranyakasipu survive from slightly later Gupta-period temples: one at Madhia and one from a temple-doorway now set into the Kurma Matha at Nachna, both dated to the late fifth or early sixth century CE.[53]

An image of Narasimha supposedly dating to second-third century CE sculpted at Mathura was acquired by the Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1987. It was described by Stella Kramrisch, the former Philadelphia Museum of Art's Indian curator, as "perhaps the earliest image of Narasimha as yet known".[53] This figure depicts a furled brow, fangs, and lolling tongue is same as later images of Narasimha, but the idol's robe, simplicity, and stance set it apart. On Narasimha's chest under his upper garment appears the suggestion of an amulet, which Stella Kramrisch associated with Vishnu's cognizance, the Kaustubha jewel. This upper garment flows over both shoulders; but below Hiranyakasipu, the demon-figure placed horizontally across Narasimha's body, a twisted waist-band suggests a separate garment covering the legs. The Hiranyakashipu's hair streams behind him, catching his head against Narasimha's right knee. He wears a simple single strand of beads. His body is caught and holded down. His face is pushed down. His eyes face away below from the face of Vishnu. Hiranyakashipu is caught and pulled down as Narasimha disembowels and kills him. His organs are disemboweled and fall over his right side. In Matsya Purana it is shown Narasimha disemboweled and killed Hiranyakashipu as a plaiter of straw mats shreds his reeds".[53] Based on the Gandhara style of robe worn by the idol, Michael Meiste altered the date of the image to fourth century CE.[53]

An image of Narasimha, dating to the 9th century CE, was found on the northern slope of Mount Ijo, at Prambanan, Indonesia.[54] Images of Trivikrama and Varāha avatāras were also found at Prambanan, Indonesia. Vishnu and His avataras have iconographic differences characteristic of the art of central Java. This includes physiognomy of central Java, an exaggerated volume of garment, and some elaboration of the jewelry. This decorative scheme once formulated became, with very little modification, an accepted norm for sculptures throughout the Central Javanese period (circa 730–930 CE). Despite the iconographic peculiarities, the stylistic antecedents of the Java sculptures can be traced back to Indian carvings as the Chalukya and Pallava images of the 6th–7th centuries CE.[55]

Temples

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India

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Andhra Pradesh

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Bihar

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Gujarat

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  • Narasimha Temple, Rudel -1 Km from BAPS Bochasan.

Karnataka

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Kerala

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Maharashtra

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Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, Nira Narsimhapura.

Pokharni Narasimha Temple

Odisha

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Rajasthan

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  • Sri Narasimha Temple, Amber.

Tamil Nadu

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Telangana

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Uttar Pradesh

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West Bengal

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  • Narasimha Temple, Nadia, Nadia.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Mallik, Anupama; Chaudhury, Santanu; Chandru, Vijay; Srinivasan, Sharada (31 March 2018). Digital Hampi: Preserving Indian Cultural Heritage. Springer. p. 183. ISBN 978-981-10-5738-0.
  2. ^ Blurton, T. Richard (1993). Hindu art. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-674-39188-8. OCLC 25833896.
  3. ^ a b c d George M. Williams (2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2.
  4. ^ Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  5. ^ Rangachar Vasantha (1991). The Nārāyaṇasvāmi Temple at Mēlkōṭe: An Archaeological and Historical Study. Directorate of Archaeology and Museums. p. 9. The layout of this matha is almost like that of the Parakāla - matha above described. Here too in the central shrine are kept a few bronze images, including that of Lakshmi Narasimha, the presiding deity of that matha.
  6. ^ a b Soifer 1991, p. 102.
  7. ^ a b Soifer 1991, p. 92.
  8. ^ a b Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  10. ^ Nanditha Krishna (2009). The Book of Vishnu. Penguin Books. pp. 50–53. ISBN 978-0-14-306762-7.
  11. ^ Steven J. Rosen, Narasiṁha Avatar, The Half-Man/Half-Lion Incarnation, p5
  12. ^ Dalal, Roshen (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  13. ^ Farley P. Richmond; Darius L. Swann; Phillip B. Zarrilli (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 127 with footnote 1. ISBN 978-81-208-0981-9.
  14. ^ a b Soifer 1991.
  15. ^ Verghese, Anila (1995). Religious Traditions at Vijayanagara, as Revealed Through Its Monuments. Manohar. p. 39. ISBN 978-81-7304-086-3.
  16. ^ Elgood, Heather (1 April 2000). Hinduism and the Religious Arts. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8264-9865-6.
  17. ^ a b c Meister, Michael W. (1996). "Man and Man-Lion: The Philadelphia Narasimha". Artibus Asiae. 56 (3/4): 291–301 with footnotes. doi:10.2307/3250120. JSTOR 3250120.
  18. ^ For English summary, see page 80 Schmid, Charlotte (1997). Les Vaikuṇṭha gupta de Mathura : Viṣṇu ou Kṛṣṇa?. pp. 60–88.
  19. ^ "Eight sacred names of Lord Narsimha to remove the fear". www.speakingtree.in. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  20. ^ The Rigveda Mandala 1 Hymn 154, Ralph T.H. Griffith, Wikisource
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Soifer 1991, pp. 37–39.
  22. ^ Bloomfield, Maurice (1893). "Contributions to the Interpretation of the Veda". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 15. American Oriental Society: 143–156. doi:10.2307/592353. JSTOR 592353.
  23. ^ Fowler, Murray (1942). "The Role of Surā in the Myth of Namuci". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 62 (1). American Oriental Society: 36–40. doi:10.2307/594098. JSTOR 594098.
  24. ^ Walter Ruben (1968), Fighting against despotes in old Indian literature, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 48/49, Golden Jubilee, Volume 1917-1967 (1968), pp. 111-118
  25. ^ Steven J. Rosen, Narasimha, The Half-Man - Half-Lion Incarnation of Vishnu, p1
  26. ^ Ravi M. Gupta; Kenneth R. Valpey (2013). The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition. Columbia University Press. pp. 21–23, 32–35. ISBN 978-0-231-53147-4.
  27. ^ David Leeming (2001). A Dictionary of Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-0-19-512053-0.
  28. ^ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 35–38. ISBN 978-81-208-1098-3.
  29. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 123–124.
  30. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (25 September 1974). Tamil Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 9783447015820.
  31. ^ https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-paripadal/
  32. ^ Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 809–858. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.
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