Rakhine (/rəˈkaɪn/; Burmese: ရခိုင်ဘာသာ, MLCTS: ra.hkuing bhasa Burmese pronunciation: [ɹəkʰàɪɴ bàθà]), also known as Arakanese, is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in western Myanmar, primarily in the Rakhine State, and parts of south-eastern Bangladesh. Closely related to Burmese, the language is spoken by the Rakhine and Marma peoples; it is estimated to have around one million native speakers and it is spoken as a second language by a further million.
| Rakhine | |
|---|---|
| Arakanese | |
| ရက္ခိုင်ဘာသာ | |
| Pronunciation | IPA: [ɹəkʰàɪɴbàθà] |
| Native to | Myanmar, Bangladesh, India |
| Region |
|
| Ethnicity | Rakhine, Kamein, Marma |
Native speakers | 1 million (2011–2013)[1] 1 million second language speakers in Myanmar (2013) |
| Dialects |
|
| Burmese script | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:rki – Rakhine ("Arakanese")rmz – Marma ("Burmese") |
| Glottolog | arak1255 |
 Rakhine State shown within Myanmar | |
Though Arakanese has some similarity with standard Burmese, Burmese speakers find it difficult to communicate with Arakanese speakers. Thus, it is often considered to be a dialect or variety of Burmese. As there are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing a language from a dialect, scholars and other interested parties often disagree about the linguistic, historical and social status of Arakanese.[2] There are three dialects of Arakanese: Sittwe–Marma (about two thirds of speakers), Ramree, and Thandwe.[3]
Vocabulary
editWhile Arakanese and Standard Burmese share the majority of lexicon, Arakanese has numerous vocabulary differences. Some are native words with no cognates in Standard Burmese, like 'sarong' (‹See Tfd›လုံခြည် in Standard Burmese, ‹See Tfd›ဒယော in Arakanese). Others are loan words from Bengali, English, and Hindi, not found in Standard Burmese. An example is 'hospital', which is called ‹See Tfd›ဆေးရုံ in Standard Burmese, but is called ‹See Tfd›သိပ်လှိုင် (pronounced [θeɪʔ l̥àɪɴ]/[ʃeɪʔ l̥àɪɴ]) in Arakanese, from English sick lines. Other words simply have different meanings (e.g., 'afternoon', ‹See Tfd›ညစ in Arakanese and ‹See Tfd›ညနေ in Standard Burmese). Moreover, some archaic words in Standard Burmese are preferred in Arakanese. An example is the first person pronoun, which is ‹See Tfd›အကျွန် in Arakanese (not ‹See Tfd›ကျွန်တော်, as in Standard Burmese). A more unique difference is the 'Hra' sound which is not found in Burmese: only in Arakanese. eg. ဟြာ(Hra/Seek) and Hraa(ဟြား/very good/smart).
Comparison
editA gloss of vocabulary differences between Standard Burmese and Arakanese is below:[4]
| English | Standard Burmese | Arakanese | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| thirsty | ‹See Tfd›ရေဆာ | ‹See Tfd›ရီမွတ် | |
| go | ‹See Tfd›သွား | ‹See Tfd›လား | Arakanese for 'go' was historically used in Standard Burmese. |
| kick a ball | ‹See Tfd›ဘောလုံးကန် | ‹See Tfd›ဘောလုံးကျောက် | |
| stomach ache | ‹See Tfd›ဗိုက်နာ | ‹See Tfd›ဝမ်းနာ | Arakanese prefers ‹See Tfd›ဝမ်း to Standard Burmese ‹See Tfd›ဗိုက် for 'stomach'. |
| guava | ‹See Tfd›မာလကာသီး | ‹See Tfd›ဂိုယံသီး | Standard Burmese for 'guava' is derived from the word Malacca, whereas Arakanese for 'guava' is from Spanish guayaba, from Taino: guayaba. |
| papaya | ‹See Tfd›သင်္ဘောသီး | ‹See Tfd›ပဒကာသီး | Standard Burmese for 'papaya' literally means 'boat'. |
| soap | ‹See Tfd›ဆပ်ပြာ | ‹See Tfd›သူပုန် | From Portuguese "sabão". In Standard Burmese, '‹See Tfd›သူပုန်' means 'rebel' or 'insurgent'. |
| superficial | ‹See Tfd›အပေါ်ယံ | ‹See Tfd›အထက်ပေါ်ရီ[5] | |
| blanket | ‹See Tfd›စောင် | ‹See Tfd›ပုဆိုး[5] | ‹See Tfd›ပုဆိုး in Standard Burmese refers to the men's longyi (sarong). |
| dark | ‹See Tfd›မှောင် | ‹See Tfd›မိုက် | The compound word ‹See Tfd›မှောင်မိုက် ('pitch dark') is used in both Standard Burmese and Arakanese. |
| pick a flower | ‹See Tfd›ပန်းခူး | ‹See Tfd›ပန်းဆွတ်[5] | The compound word ‹See Tfd›ဆွတ်ခူး ('pick') is used in both Standard Burmese and Arakanese. |
| wash [clothes] | ‹See Tfd›လျှော် | ‹See Tfd›ဖွပ်[5] | The compound word ‹See Tfd›လျှော်ဖွပ် ('wash') is used in both Standard Burmese and Arakanese. |
Phonology
editThe phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds, represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Consonants
editThe consonants of Arakanese are:
| Bilabial | Dental/Alveolar | Post-al./ Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| central | sibilant | ||||||
| Nasal | voiced | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||
| voiceless | m̥ | n̥ | ɲ̊ | ŋ̊ | |||
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | dʒ | ɡ | ||
| voiceless | p | t | tʃ | k | ʔ | ||
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | |||
| Fricative | voiced | z | |||||
| voiceless | θ | s | ʃ | h | |||
| aspirated | sʰ | ||||||
| Lateral | voiced | l | |||||
| voiceless | l̥ | ||||||
| Approximant | voiced | ɹ | j | w | |||
| voiceless | ɹ̥ | ʍ | |||||
Arakanese largely shares the same set of consonant phonemes as standard Burmese, though Arakanese more prominently uses /ɹ/, which has largely merged to /j/ in standard Burmese (with some exceptions). Because Arakanese has preserved the /ɹ/ sound, the /-ɹ-/ medial (which is preserved in writing in Standard Burmese with the diacritic ‹See Tfd›ြ) is still distinguished in the following Arakanese consonant clusters: /ɡɹ- kɹ- kʰɹ- ŋɹ- pɹ- pʰɹ- bɹ- mɹ- m̥ɹ- hɹ-/. For example, the word "blue," spelt ‹See Tfd›ပြာ, is pronounced /pjà/ in standard Burmese, but pronounced /pɹà/ in Arakanese. Moreover, there is less voicing in Arakanese than in Standard Burmese, occurring only when the consonant is unaspirated.[6] Unlike in Burmese, voicing never shifts from [θ] to [ð].[7]
Vowels
editThe vowels of Arakanese are:
| Monophthongs | Diphthongs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Central | Back | Front offglide | Back offglide | |
| Close | i | u | |||
| Close-mid | e | ə | o | ei | ou |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |||
| Open | a | ai | au | ||
While Arakanese shares the same set of vowels as Burmese, Arakanese rhymes also diverge from Standard Burmese for a number of open syllables and closed syllables. For instance, Arakanese has also merged various vowel sounds, such as ‹See Tfd›ဧ ([e]) to ဣ ([i]). Hence, a word like 'blood', which is spelt ‹See Tfd›သွေး, pronounced ([θwé]) in standard Burmese, is pronounced [θwí] in Arakanese. Similarly, Arakanese has a number of closed syllable rhymes that do not exist in Standard Burmese, including /-ɛɴ -ɔɴ -ɛʔ -ɔʔ/.
The Arakanese dialect also has a higher frequency of open vowels weakening to /ə/ than Standard Burmese. An example is the word for 'salary', (‹See Tfd›လခ), which is [la̰ɡa̰] in standard Burmese, but [ləkha̰] in Arakanese.
Differences from standard Burmese
editThe following is a summary of consonantal, vowel and rhyme differences from Standard Burmese found in the Arakanese dialect:[8][9]
| Written Burmese | Standard Burmese | Arakanese | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‹See Tfd›-စ် | /-ɪʔ/ | /-aɪʔ/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›စစ် 'genuine' and ‹See Tfd›စိုက် 'plant' are both pronounced [saɪʔ] in Arakanese |
| ‹See Tfd›ိုက် | /-aɪʔ/ | ||
| ‹See Tfd›-က် | -ɛʔ | -ɔʔ | |
| ‹See Tfd›-ဉ် | /-ɪɴ/ | /-aɪɴ/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›ဥယျာဉ် 'garden', from Standard Burmese [ṵ jɪ̀ɴ] → [wəjàɪɴ]. Irregular rhyme, with various pronunciations. In some words, it is /-ɛɴ/ (e.g. ‹See Tfd›ဝိညာဉ် 'soul', from Standard Burmese [wèɪɴ ɲɪ̀ɴ] → [wḭ ɲɛ̀ɴ]). In a few words, it is /-i -e/ (e.g. ‹See Tfd›ညှဉ်း 'to oppress', from Standard Burmese [ɲ̥ɪ́ɴ] → [ɲ̥í, ɲ̥é]). |
| ‹See Tfd›ိုင် | /-aɪɴ/ | ||
| ‹See Tfd›-င် | /-ɪɴ/ | /-ɔɴ/ | |
| ‹See Tfd›-န် ွန် | /-aɴ -ʊɴ/ | ‹See Tfd›ွန် is /-wɔɴ/ | |
| ‹See Tfd›-ည် | /-i, -e, -ɛ/ | /-e/ | A few exceptions are pronounced /-aɪɴ/, like ‹See Tfd›ကြည် 'clear', pronounced [kɹàɪɴ] |
| ‹See Tfd›-ေ | /-e/ | /-i/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›ချီ 'carry' and ‹See Tfd›ချေ 'cancel' are pronounced [tɕʰì] and [tɕʰè] respectively in Standard Burmese, but merged to [tɕʰì] in Arakanese |
| ‹See Tfd›-တ် ွတ် | /-aʔ -ʊʔ/ | /-aʔ/ | |
| ‹See Tfd›ိန် | /-eɪɴ/ | /-ɪɴ/ | |
| ‹See Tfd›-ုန် | /-oʊɴ/ | /-ʊɴ/ | |
| Nasal initial + ‹See Tfd›-ီ Nasal initial + ‹See Tfd›-ေ |
/-i/ | /-eɪɴ/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›နီ 'red' is [nì] in Standard Burmese, but [nèɪɴ] in Arakanese In some words, the rhyme is unchanged from the standard rhyme (e.g. ‹See Tfd›မြေ 'land', usually pronounced [mɹì], not [mɹèɪɴ], or ‹See Tfd›အမိ 'mother', usually pronounced [əmḭ], not [əmḛɪɴ] There are few exceptions where the nasal rhyme is /-eɪɴ-/ even without a nasal initial (e.g. ‹See Tfd›သီ 'thread', from Standard Burmese [θì] → [θèɪɴ]). |
| Nasal initial + ‹See Tfd›-ု -ူ -ူး | /-u/ | /-oʊɴ/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›နု 'tender' is [nṵ] in Standard Burmese, but [no̰ʊɴ] in Arakanese |
| ‹See Tfd›ွား | /-wá/ | /-ɔ́/ | e.g. ‹See Tfd›ဝါး 'bamboo' is [wá] in Standard Burmese, but [wɔ́] in Arakanese |
| ‹See Tfd›ြွ | /-w-/ | /-ɹw-/ | Occurs in some words (e.g. ‹See Tfd›မြွေ 'snake' is [mwè] in Standard Burmese, but [mɹwèɪɴ] in Arakanese) |
| ‹See Tfd›ရှ- | /ʃ-/ | /hɹ-/ | |
| ‹See Tfd›ချ- | /tɕʰ-/ | /ʃ-/ | Occasionally occurs (e.g. ‹See Tfd›ချင် 'to want' is [tɕʰɪ̀ɴ] in Standard Burmese, but [ʃɔ̀ɴ]~[tɕʰɔ̀ɴ] in Arakanese) |
| ‹See Tfd›တ- → ‹See Tfd›ရ- | /t- d-/ | /ɹ-/ | e.g. The present tense particle ‹See Tfd›တယ် ([dɛ̀]) corresponds with ‹See Tfd›ရယ် ([ɹɛ̀]) in Arakanese e.g. The plural particle ‹See Tfd›တို့ ([do̰]) corresponds with ‹See Tfd›ရို့ ([ɹo̰]) in Arakanese |
| ‹See Tfd›ရှ- ယှ- ယျှ- | /ʃ-/ | /h-/ | Found in some words only |
| ‹See Tfd›-ယ် ဲ | -ɛ | -e |
| Written | ‹See Tfd›အမေက | ‹See Tfd›သင်္ကြန်ပွဲတွင် | ‹See Tfd›ဝတ်ရန် | ‹See Tfd›ထဘီ | ‹See Tfd›ရှစ်ထည် | ‹See Tfd›ပေးလိုက်ပါ | ‹See Tfd›ဆိုသည်။ | |
| Standard Burmese | ʔəmè ɡa̰ | ðədʒàɴ pwɛ́ dwɪ̀ɴ | wʊʔ jàɴ | tʰəmèɪɴ | ʃɪʔ tʰɛ̀ | pé laɪʔ pà | sʰò dɛ̀ | |
| Arakanese | ʔəmì ɡa̰ | θɔ́ɴkràɴ pwé hmà | waʔ pʰo̰ | dəjɔ̀ | ʃaɪʔ tʰè | pí laʔ pà | sʰò ɹì | |
| Arakanese (written) | ‹See Tfd›အမိက | ‹See Tfd›သင်္ကြန်ပွဲမှာ | ‹See Tfd›ဝတ်ဖို့ | ‹See Tfd›ဒယော | ‹See Tfd›ရှစ်ထည် | ‹See Tfd›ပီးလတ်ပါ | ‹See Tfd›ဆိုရယ်။ | |
| Gloss | ||||||||
| English | Mother says "Give me eight pasos for wearing during the Thingyan festival." | |||||||
Writing system
editArakanese is written using the Burmese script, which descends from Southern Brahmi. Rakhine speakers are taught Rakhine pronunciations using written Burmese, while most Marma speakers are only literate in Bengali.[10]
The first extant Arakanese inscriptions, the Launggrak Taung Maw inscription and the Mahathi Crocodile Rock inscription (1356), date to the 1300s, and the epigraphic record of Arakanese inscriptions is unevenly distributed between the 1400s to 1800s.[11] In the early 1400s, Arakanese inscriptions began to transition from the square letters associated with stone inscriptions (kyauksa), to rounder letters that is now standard for the Burmese script.[11] This coincided with developments in Arakanese literature, which was stimulated by the rise of Mrauk U during the 1400s.[12]
What is now Rakhine State is home to Sanskrit inscriptions that date from the first millennium to the 1000s.[11] These inscriptions were written in Northern Brahmic scripts (namely Siddham or Gaudi), which are ancestral to the Bengali script.[11] However, these inscriptions are not ancestral to Arakanese epigraphy, which uses the Mon–Burmese script.[11] While some Arakanese have coined the term "Rakkhawunna" (Rakkhavaṇṇa) to describe a script that predates the usage of written Burmese, there is no contemporary lithic evidence to support the existence of such a script.[12]
References
edit- ^ Rakhine ("Arakanese") at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Marma ("Burmese") at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) - ^ "The Arakanese dialect". Fifty Viss. 2007-07-02. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ^ Okell 1995, p. 3.
- ^ "ရခိုင်စကားနဲ့ ဗမာစကား". BBC Burmese. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
- ^ a b c d အသျှင်စက္ကိန္ဒ (1994). ရခိုင်ဘာသာစကားလမ်းညွှန် (in Burmese). Burma – via Scribd.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Okell 1995, p. 4, 14.
- ^ Okell 1995, p. 14.
- ^ Okell 1995.
- ^ Houghton 1897, pp. 453–61.
- ^ Davis, Heidi A (2014). "Consonant correspondences of Burmese, Rakhine and Marma with initial implications for historical relationships". The University of North Dakota.
- ^ a b c d e Minn Htin, Kyaw; Leider, Jacques (2018), Perret, Daniel (ed.), "The Epigraphic Archive of Arakan/Rakhine State (Myanmar): A Survey", Writing for Eternity: A Survey of Epigraphy in Southeast Asia, Etudes thématiques, vol. 30, Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, pp. 73–85, retrieved 2022-08-07
- ^ a b Singer, Noel F. (2008). Vaishali and the Indianization of Arakan. APH Publishing. ISBN 978-81-313-0405-1.
Bibliography
edit- Houghton, Bernard (1897). "The Arakanese Dialect of the Burman Language". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 453–461. JSTOR 25207880.
- Okell, John (1995). "Three Burmese Dialects" (PDF). Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics. 13.
