Wikipedia

Reusable spacecraft

This article is about reusable spacecraft. For distinct launch systems, see Reusable launch system.

Reusable spacecraft are spacecraft capable of repeated launch, atmospheric reentry, and landing or splashdown. This contrasts with expendable spacecraft which are designed to be discarded after use, although many partially reusable spacecraft discard some kind of expendable module before reentry and recovery.

Space Shuttle Endeavour landing from orbit on STS-126, its 22nd spaceflight

Reusable spacecraft may be crewed or uncrewed and orbital or sub-orbital. Examples include spaceplanes such as the Space Shuttle and the Boeing X-37B, and space capsules such as the SpaceX Dragon. The Blue Origin New Shepard is an example of a sub-orbital spacecraft.

History

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Gemini paraglider during tests at Edwards Air Force Base in August 1964.

On July 17, 1962, the North American X-15, a rocket plane, reached an altitude of 95.9km on a sub-orbital flight, marking the first spaceflight with a reusable vehicle according to United States definition.[a] In 1963, the X-15 completed two flights above 100km.[1] The Gemini SC-2 capsule followed, making a sub-orbital flight in 1965 and another sub-orbital flight in 1966.[2]

The first spacecraft to be reused in orbit was the Soviet VA spacecraft, a capsule that was part of the larger TKS spacecraft. A VA capsule that launched in 1977 was reflown in 1978.[3]

The Space Shuttle was the first orbital spacecraft designed for reuse according to NASA, and first launched in 1981.[4] Five orbiters would launch 135 times before the vehicle's retirement in 2011. As of November 2024, Space Shuttle Discovery holds the record for the most spaceflights by a single spacecraft at 39.[5] The Space Shuttle program faced criticism that it failed to reduce the cost of access to space and had safety concerns following the Challenger and Columbia disasters.[6]

The SpaceX Dragon 1 first flew in 2010, and became the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to be recovered from orbit. In 2012, Dragon became the first commercial vehicle to attach to the International Space Station (ISS), after which it conducted regular cargo resupply flights for NASA.[7] Its first reuse was in 2014, and the vehicle led to the development of the Dragon 2, which first reached orbit in 2019. Dragon 2 carries both cargo and crew, and has been described as the most cost-effective spacecraft ever used by NASA.[8] In 2021, Dragon 2 conducted the first orbital flight with only private astronauts onboard.[9]

SpaceShipOne, another rocket plane, completed the first private sub-orbital spaceflight in 2004 and led to the development of SpaceShipTwo. The Blue Origin New Shepard capsule conducts commercial sub-orbital spaceflights, as did SpaceShipTwo.[b]

Design

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Crew Dragon Endurance being recovered after its second flight

Reusable spacecraft must survive reentry and safely return to the surface. The mass of any hardware dedicated for this reduces potential payload mass.

Atmospheric entry

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Orbital spacecraft initiate a deorbit burn and orient themselves for atmospheric entry. The Boeing Starliner and Orion discard their service modules, including their maneuvering engines. The SpaceX Dragon discards its trunk, which includes its solar panels and radiators, but retains its Draco engines in the capsule.[10] The Space Shuttle was notable for recovering the entire spacecraft.

In general, around 15% of the landed weight of a vehicle is heat shielding.[11] Thermal protection systems (TPS) can be made of a variety of materials, including reinforced carbon-carbon and ablative materials.[12] Historically, these materials were first developed on ICBM MIRVs. However, the requirements of reusable space systems differ from those of single use reentry vehicles, especially with regards to heat shield requirements. In particular the need for durable high emissivity coatings that can withstand multiple thermal cycles constitutes a key requirement in the development of new reusable spacecraft. Current materials for such high emissivity coatings include transition metal disilicides.[13]

Ablative heat shields are reliable, but are diminished with use and heavy. Reinforced carbon-carbon heat tiles such as those used on the Space Shuttle are fragile, contributing to the Columbia disaster. Making a resistant yet lightweight and effective heat tile poses a challenge. The LI-900 material was used on the Space Shuttle.

Landing and refurbishment

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Runway landings from orbit became common with the introduction of the Space Shuttle. Spaceplanes that land horizontally on a runway require lifting surfaces and landing gear. Designs include the Space Shuttle's delta wing and the Dream Chaser's lifting body. Spaceplanes require access to a long enough runway, a necessary consideration for the Space Shuttle launch abort modes.

The first recoverable space capsules landed under parachute, either on land or by splashing down in a body of water. Ground landings require additional cushioning, which Starliner accomplishes with deployable airbags. This was considered for Orion as well, but was ruled out due to the extra mass required.[14] The sub-orbital New Shepard uses retro-rockets to slow down just before touchdown, a technique that has been used by the expendable Soyuz for decades. Splashing down allows the water to cushion the spacecraft, but exposure to salt water can have adverse effects on avionics, electronics, and structures.[15] Despite this, SpaceX began regularly reusing Dragon capsules after splashdown.

Dragon 2 was originally designed to propusively land using its SuperDraco engines; however, propulsive landings for Dragon were canceled[c] and Dragon 2 also uses parachutes to splashdown in the ocean.[17] The SpaceX Starship, which is under development as of November 2024, is designed to propulsively land using its Raptor engines. It aims to be "caught" by the launch tower, as is done for the Super Heavy booster. This reduces the mass of landing infrastructure on the vehicle by eliminating the need for traditional landing legs.

After a spacecraft is recovered, it may need to be refurbished before its next flight. Depending on the spacecraft design, this process may be lengthy and expensive, and there may be a limit to how many times a spacecraft can be refurbished before it has to be retired.[18]

List of reusable spacecraft

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Operational

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Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method First spaceflight
Dragon 2   United States SpaceX Orbital 0 (cargo)
4-7[19] (crew) 		Partial Parachute splashdown 2019 (cargo)
2020 (crew)
New Shepard   United States Blue Origin Sub-orbital 6 Full Parachute landing 2015
X-37B   United States Boeing Orbital — Full[d] Runway 2010
Starliner   United States Boeing Orbital 4 Partial Parachute landing 2019
Orion   United States Lockheed Martin (Crew Module)
Airbus Defense and Space (Service Module) 		Orbital 4 Partial Parachute splashdown 2014
Shenlong   China Orbital — Runway 2020

Under development

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Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method Expected spaceflight
Dream Chaser   United States Sierra Space Orbital 0 (cargo)
7 (crew) 		Partial Runway 2025 (cargo)
TBA (crew)
Starship   United States SpaceX Orbital 0 (cargo)
100 (crew) 		Full Propulsive landing 2024[e]
Space Rider   Europe Avio and Thales Alenia Space Orbital 2 Partial Parachute landing 2025
Mengzhou   China CAST Orbital 3-7 Partial Parachute landing 2020[f]
RLV-TD   India — Runway
Orel   Russia RKK Energia Orbital 4-6 Partial 2028
 
Comparison of Soyuz, Starliner, Crew Dragon, Orion, and Susie.

Retired

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Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method First Spaceflight Retired
X-15   United States North American Aviation Sub-orbital 1 Full Runway 1962[g] 1968
Gemini   United States McDonnell Aircraft Orbital[h] 2 Partial Parachute splashdown 1964 1966
VA spacecraft   Soviet Union NPO Mashinostroyeniya Orbital —[i] Partial Parachute 1976 1985
Space Shuttle   United States Rockwell International Orbital 8 Full Runway 1981 2011
Buran[j]   Soviet Union Orbital 10[k] Full Runway 1988 1988
SpaceShipOne   United States Scaled Composites Sub-orbital 1 Full Runway 2004 2004
Dragon 1   United States SpaceX Orbital — Partial Parachute splashdown 2010 2020
SpaceShipTwo   United States Scaled Composites & The Spaceship Company Sub-orbital 6 Full Runway 2018[l] 2024

Proposed

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Canceled

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Heger, Gary (August 22, 2020). "The First Reusable Spacecraft: The X-15 Flights Above the Karman Line". Drew Ex Machina.
  2. ^ USAF (2017). "Gemini Capsule". Air Force Space and Missile Museum. Archived from the original on 2017-02-15. Retrieved 2017-12-31.
  3. ^ "Used spacecraft for sale: Soviet-era space capsule up for auction in Belgium". collectSPACE. May 6, 2014.
  4. ^ "Space Shuttle Era Facts" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
  5. ^ "Most re-used spacecraft". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
  6. ^ Cegłowski, Maciej (2005-08-03). "A Rocket To Nowhere". Idle Words. Retrieved 2024-11-09.
  7. ^ Chang, Kenneth (25 May 2012). "Space X Capsule Docks at Space Station". New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 June 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  8. ^ "Infographic: Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA". Statista Daily Data. 2020-06-08. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  9. ^ Overbye, Dennis (21 September 2021). "What a Fungus Reveals About the Space Program - One thing's for sure: Escaping the dung heap doesn't come cheap". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
  10. ^ "Coming Up: Crew Dragon Deorbit Burn – Commercial Crew Program". blogs.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  11. ^ Chung, Winchell D. Jr. (2011-05-30). "Basic Design". Atomic Rockets. Projectrho.com. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
  12. ^ Johnson, Sylvia (September 2012). "Thermal Protection Materials: Development, Characterization, and Evaluation" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center.
  13. ^ High emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramics for reusable space systems Corrosion Science 2019
  14. ^ Scharr, Jillian (13 June 2013). "NASA Goes 'Green': Next Spacecraft to Be Reusable". Space.com. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
  15. ^ "A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE REUSABILITY OF HARDWARE (REUSABLE ROCKET ENGINES" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
  16. ^ McRea, Aaron. "Dragon receives long-planned propulsive landing upgrade after years of development". Nasa Spaceflight. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
  17. ^ Thompson, Loren. "SpaceX Abandons Plan To Make Astronaut Spacecraft Reusable; Boeing Sticks With Reuse Plan". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  18. ^ "SpaceX launches Dragon as it prepares for next cargo contract". SpaceNews.com. 2019-07-25. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  19. ^ "space station TRANSPORTING HUMANS TO THE ORBITING LABORATORY IN THE SKY". SpaceX. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
  20. ^ Wolfe, Frank (4 March 2022). "Seventh X-37B Mission to Have Service Module, Like Sixth Mission, to Permit More Experiments". Defense Daily. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
  1. ^ The United States defines spaceflight as above 80km, while 100km is internationally recognized by the FAI
  2. ^ SpaceShipTwo has exceeded altitudes of 80km, but not 100km
  3. ^ Crew Dragon retains the ability to propulsively land in the event of parachute failure.[16]
  4. ^ The X-37 can carry an optional expendable service module[20]
  5. ^ Starship completed suborbital spaceflights in 2024, but has not yet been recovered
  6. ^ Mengzhou completed an uncrewed test flight in 2020
  7. ^ The X-15 reached an altitude of 95.9km on July 17, 1962. It reached an altitude of 106.1km on July 19, 1963
  8. ^ Gemini SC-2 was used on two sub-orbital spaceflights[1]
  9. ^ The VA spacecraft was designed to carry crew, but this was never proven
  10. ^ Buran was designed to be reused and was recovered, but only completed one spaceflight.
  11. ^ Buran was designed to carry cosmonauts, but this was not proven
  12. ^ SpaceShipTwo exceeded an altitude of 80km, but not 100km
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