Wikipedia

Template:List of oxidation states of the elements

This table lists only the occurrences in compounds and complexes, not pure elements in their standard state or allotropes.

  Noble gas
+1 Bold values are main oxidation states
Oxidation states of the elements
Element Negative states Positive states Group Notes
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Z
1 hydrogen H −1 +1 1
2 helium He 18
3 lithium Li +1 1
4 beryllium Be 0 +1 +2 2 [1] [2]
5 boron B −5 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [3] [4][5] [6] [6][7][8]
6 carbon C −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6]
7 nitrogen N −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [6] [6][9] [6] [6] [6]
8 oxygen O −2 −1 0 +1 +2 16 [6] [6] [6]
9 fluorine F −1 17
10 neon Ne 18
11 sodium Na −1 0 +1 1 [6][10]
12 magnesium Mg 0 +1 +2 2 [11] [12]
13 aluminium Al −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [13] [6][14] [15] ?
14 silicon Si −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [6] [6] [6][16] [6][17] [6] [6]
15 phosphorus P −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [6] [6][18] [6][19] [6] [6]
16 sulfur S −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [6] [6] [6] [6]
17 chlorine Cl −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17 [6] [6] [6]
18 argon Ar 18
19 potassium K −1 +1 1 ?
20 calcium Ca +1 +2 2 [20]
21 scandium Sc 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [21] [22] [23]
22 titanium Ti −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [6][24] [25] [6] [6] ?
23 vanadium V −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
24 chromium Cr −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
25 manganese Mn −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [6] [6] [6], [6] [6], [6] ?
26 iron Fe −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 8 [6] [6] [26] [6] [27] [6] [28] ?
27 cobalt Co −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 9 [6] [6] [6] [29] ?
28 nickel Ni −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 10 [6] [30] [6] [31] ?
29 copper Cu −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 11 [32] [6] [6] [6] ?
30 zinc Zn −2 0 +1 +2 12 ?
31 gallium Ga −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [33] [6] [6][34] ?
32 germanium Ge −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [35] [6] [6] ?
33 arsenic As −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [36] [37] [6] ?
34 selenium Se −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [38] [39] ?
35 bromine Br −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +7 17 [40] [6] [6]
36 krypton Kr +1 +2 18 ?
37 rubidium Rb −1 +1 1 ?
38 strontium Sr +1 +2 2 [41]
39 yttrium Y 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [42] [6] ?
40 zirconium Zr +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [6] [43][44] [6]
41 niobium Nb −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
42 molybdenum Mo −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
43 technetium Tc −3 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6]
44 ruthenium Ru −4 −2 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
45 rhodium Rh −3 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 9 [45] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [46]
46 palladium Pd +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 10 [47] ?
47 silver Ag −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 11 [48] [6] [6] ?
48 cadmium Cd −2 +1 +2 12 ?
49 indium In −5 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [49] [6] [6] [50] ?
50 tin Sn −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [51] [52] [53] ?
51 antimony Sb −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [54] ?
52 tellurium Te −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [6] ?
53 iodine I −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17 [55] ?
54 xenon Xe +2 +4 +6 +8 18 [56]
55 caesium Cs −1 +1 1 [57]
56 barium Ba +1 +2 2 ?
57 lanthanum La 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] [58] [6]
58 cerium Ce +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [6] ?
59 praseodymium Pr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [42] [59] ?
60 neodymium Nd 0 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [42] [6]
61 promethium Pm +2 +3 f-block groups ?
62 samarium Sm 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] [60] [6]
63 europium Eu 0 +2 +3 f-block groups 0[42]
64 gadolinium Gd 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] [6] [6]
65 terbium Tb 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [42] [58] [6] ?
66 dysprosium Dy 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [42] [6] ?
67 holmium Ho 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] ?
68 erbium Er 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] ?
69 thulium Tm 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] [58] [6]
70 ytterbium Yb 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [42] [58] [6]
71 lutetium Lu 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [42] ?
72 hafnium Hf −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [6], [6] ?
73 tantalum Ta −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
74 tungsten W −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
75 rhenium Re −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [6] [6] [6], [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
76 osmium Os −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] ?
77 iridium Ir −3 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 9 [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [61] ?
78 platinum Pt −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 10 [6] [6] ?
79 gold Au −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +5 11 [6] [62] [6] [6] ?
80 mercury Hg −2 +1 +2 12 [63]
81 thallium Tl −5 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13 [64] ?
82 lead Pb −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [6] [65] ?
83 bismuth Bi −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [6] [66] [6] ?
84 polonium Po −2 +2 +4 +5 +6 16 [67] [6]
85 astatine At −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 17 [6] [6] [6]
86 radon Rn +2 +6 18 ?
87 francium Fr +1 1
88 radium Ra +2 2
89 actinium Ac +3 f-block groups
90 thorium Th −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [68] [6] [6] ?
91 protactinium Pa +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [6] [6] ?
92 uranium U −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 f-block groups [68] [69] [6] [6] ?
93 neptunium Np +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f-block groups [6] [70] [6] [6] ?
94 plutonium Pu +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 f-block groups [6], [6] [6] [6] ?
95 americium Am +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f-block groups [6] [6] [6] [6]
96 curium Cm +3 +4 +5 +6 f-block groups [6] [71] [72]
97 berkelium Bk +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [6] [71] ?
98 californium Cf +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [6] [6] [73][71]
99 einsteinium Es +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [6]
100 fermium Fm +2 +3 f-block groups [6]
101 mendelevium Md +2 +3 f-block groups [6]
102 nobelium No +2 +3 f-block groups [6]
103 lawrencium Lr +3 3
104 rutherfordium Rf +3 +4 4 [74]
105 dubnium Db +3 +4 +5 5 [74]
106 seaborgium Sg +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [74]
107 bohrium Bh +3 +4 +5 +7 7 [74]
108 hassium Hs +3 +4 +6 +8 8 [74]
109 meitnerium Mt +1 +3 +6 9 [74]
110 darmstadtium Ds +2 +4 +6 10 [74]
111 roentgenium Rg −1 +3 +5 11 [74]
112 copernicium Cn +2 +4 12 [74]
113 nihonium Nh 13
114 flerovium Fl 14
115 moscovium Mc 15
116 livermorium Lv −2 +4 16 [75]
117 tennessine Ts −1 +5 17
118 oganesson Og −1 +1 +2 +4 +6 18 [74] [76] [77] [77] [74]
  1. ^ Be(0) has been observed; see "Beryllium(0) Complex Found". Chemistry Europe. 13 June 2016.
  2. ^ "Beryllium: Beryllium(I) Hydride compound data" (PDF). bernath.uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  3. ^ B(−5) has been observed in Al3BC, see Schroeder, Melanie. "Eigenschaften von borreichen Boriden und Scandium-Aluminium-Oxid-Carbiden" (in German). p. 139.
  4. ^ B(−1) has been observed in magnesium diboride (MgB2), see Keeler, James; Wothers, Peter (2014). Chemical Structure and Reactivity: An Integrated Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199604135.
  5. ^ Braunschweig, H.; Dewhurst, R. D.; Hammond, K.; Mies, J.; Radacki, K.; Vargas, A. (2012). "Ambient-Temperature Isolation of a Compound with a Boron-Boron Triple Bond". Science. 336 (6087): 1420–2. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1420B. doi:10.1126/science.1221138. PMID 22700924. S2CID 206540959.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev ew ex ey ez fa fb fc fd fe ff fg fh fi fj fk fl fm fn fo fp fq fr fs ft fu fv fw fx fy fz ga gb gc gd ge gf gg gh gi gj gk Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  7. ^ Zhang, K.Q.; Guo, B.; Braun, V.; Dulick, M.; Bernath, P.F. (1995). "Infrared Emission Spectroscopy of BF and AIF" (PDF). J. Molecular Spectroscopy. 170 (1): 82. Bibcode:1995JMoSp.170...82Z. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1995.1058.
  8. ^ Schroeder, Melanie. Eigenschaften von borreichen Boriden und Scandium-Aluminium-Oxid-Carbiden (PDF) (in German). p. 139.
  9. ^ Tetrazoles contain a pair of double-bonded nitrogen atoms with oxidation state 0 in the ring. A Synthesis of the parent 1H-tetrazole, CH2N4 (two atoms N(0)) is given in Henry, Ronald A.; Finnegan, William G. (1954). "An Improved Procedure for the Deamination of 5-Aminotetrazole". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 76 (1): 290–291. doi:10.1021/ja01630a086. ISSN 0002-7863.
  10. ^ The compound NaCl has been shown in experiments to exists in several unusual stoichiometries under high pressure, including Na3Cl in which contains a layer of sodium(0) atoms; see Zhang, W.; Oganov, A. R.; Goncharov, A. F.; Zhu, Q.; Boulfelfel, S. E.; Lyakhov, A. O.; Stavrou, E.; Somayazulu, M.; Prakapenka, V. B.; Konôpková, Z. (2013). "Unexpected Stable Stoichiometries of Sodium Chlorides". Science. 342 (6165): 1502–1505. arXiv:1310.7674. Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1502Z. doi:10.1126/science.1244989. PMID 24357316. S2CID 15298372.
  11. ^ Mg(0) has been synthesized in a compound containing a Na2Mg22+ cluster coordinated to a bulky organic ligand; see Rösch, B.; Gentner, T. X.; Eyselein, J.; Langer, J.; Elsen, H.; Li, W.; Harder, S. (2021). "Strongly reducing magnesium(0) complexes". Nature. 592 (7856): 717–721. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..717R. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03401-w. PMID 33911274. S2CID 233447380
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  13. ^ Unstable carbonyl of Al(0) has been detected in reaction of Al2(CH3)6 with carbon monoxide; see Sanchez, Ramiro; Arrington, Caleb; Arrington Jr., C. A. (December 1, 1989). "Reaction of trimethylaluminum with carbon monoxide in low-temperature matrixes". American Chemical Society. 111 (25): 9110-9111. doi:10.1021/ja00207a023. OSTI 6973516.
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  33. ^ Ga(−3) has been observed in LaGa, see Dürr, Ines; Bauer, Britta; Röhr, Caroline (2011). "Lanthan-Triel/Tetrel-ide La(Al,Ga)x(Si,Ge)1-x. Experimentelle und theoretische Studien zur Stabilität intermetallischer 1:1-Phasen" (PDF). Z. Naturforsch. (in German). 66b: 1107–1121.
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  38. ^ A Se(0) atom has been identified using DFT in [ReOSe(2-pySe)3]; see Cargnelutti, Roberta; Lang, Ernesto S.; Piquini, Paulo; Abram, Ulrich (2014). "Synthesis and structure of [ReOSe(2-Se-py)3]: A rhenium(V) complex with selenium(0) as a ligand". Inorganic Chemistry Communications. 45: 48–50. doi:10.1016/j.inoche.2014.04.003. ISSN 1387-7003.
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  40. ^ Br(II) is known to occur in bromine monoxide radical; see Kinetics of the bromine monoxide radical + bromine monoxide radical reaction
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  46. ^ Rh(VII) is known in the RhO3+ cation, see Da Silva Santos, Mayara; Stüker, Tony; Flach, Max; Ablyasova, Olesya S.; Timm, Martin; von Issendorff, Bernd; Hirsch, Konstantin; Zamudio‐Bayer, Vicente; Riedel, Sebastian; Lau, J. Tobias (2022). "The Highest Oxidation State of Rhodium: Rhodium(VII) in [RhO3]+". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 (38): e202207688. doi:10.1002/anie.202207688. PMC 9544489. PMID 35818987.
  47. ^ Palladium(V) has been identified in complexes with organosilicon compounds containing pentacoordinate palladium; see Shimada, Shigeru; Li, Yong-Hua; Choe, Yoong-Kee; Tanaka, Masato; Bao, Ming; Uchimaru, Tadafumi (2007). "Multinuclear palladium compounds containing palladium centers ligated by five silicon atoms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (19): 7758–7763. doi:10.1073/pnas.0700450104. PMC 1876520. PMID 17470819.
  48. ^ Ag(0) has been observed in carbonyl complexes in low-temperature matrices: see McIntosh, D.; Ozin, G. A. (1976). "Synthesis using metal vapors. Silver carbonyls. Matrix infrared, ultraviolet-visible, and electron spin resonance spectra, structures, and bonding of silver tricarbonyl, silver dicarbonyl, silver monocarbonyl, and disilver hexacarbonyl". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 98 (11): 3167–75. doi:10.1021/ja00427a018.
  49. ^ Unstable In(0) carbonyls and clusters have been detected, see [1], p. 6.
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  52. ^ "HSn". NIST Chemistry WebBook. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  53. ^ "SnH3". NIST Chemistry WebBook. National Institure of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  54. ^ Anastas Sidiropoulos (2019). "Studies of N-heterocyclic Carbene (NHC) Complexes of the Main Group Elements" (PDF). p. 39. doi:10.4225/03/5B0F4BDF98F60. S2CID 132399530.
  55. ^ I(II) is known to exist in monoxide (IO); see Nikitin, I V (31 August 2008). "Halogen monoxides". Russian Chemical Reviews. 77 (8): 739–749. Bibcode:2008RuCRv..77..739N. doi:10.1070/RC2008v077n08ABEH003788. S2CID 250898175.
  56. ^ Harding, Charlie; Johnson, David Arthur; Janes, Rob (2002). Elements of the p block. Great Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 93–94. ISBN 0-85404-690-9.
  57. ^ Dye, J. L. (1979). "Compounds of Alkali Metal Anions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 18 (8): 587–598. doi:10.1002/anie.197905871.
  58. ^ a b c d La(I), Pr(I), Tb(I), Tm(I), and Yb(I) have been observed in MB8− clusters; see Li, Wan-Lu; Chen, Teng-Teng; Chen, Wei-Jia; Li, Jun; Wang, Lai-Sheng (2021). "Monovalent lanthanide(I) in borozene complexes". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 6467. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26785-9. PMC 8578558. PMID 34753931.
  59. ^ Chen, Xin; et al. (2019-12-13). "Lanthanides with Unusually Low Oxidation States in the PrB3– and PrB4– Boride Clusters". Inorganic Chemistry. 58 (1): 411–418. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02572. PMID 30543295. S2CID 56148031.
  60. ^ SmB6- cluster anion has been reported and contains Sm in rare oxidation state of +1; see Paul, J. Robinson; Xinxing, Zhang; Tyrel, McQueen; Kit, H. Bowen; Anastassia, N. Alexandrova (2017). "SmB6– Cluster Anion: Covalency Involving f Orbitals". J. Phys. Chem. A 2017,? 121,? 8,? 1849–1854. 121 (8): 1849–1854. doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.7b00247. PMID 28182423. S2CID 3723987..
  61. ^ Wang, Guanjun; Zhou, Mingfei; Goettel, James T.; Schrobilgen, Gary G.; Su, Jing; Li, Jun; Schlöder, Tobias; Riedel, Sebastian (2014). "Identification of an iridium-containing compound with a formal oxidation state of IX". Nature. 514 (7523): 475–477. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..475W. doi:10.1038/nature13795. PMID 25341786. S2CID 4463905.
  62. ^ Mézaille, Nicolas; Avarvari, Narcis; Maigrot, Nicole; Ricard, Louis; Mathey, François; Le Floch, Pascal; Cataldo, Laurent; Berclaz, Théo; Geoffroy, Michel (1999). "Gold(I) and Gold(0) Complexes of Phosphinine‐Based Macrocycles". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 38 (21): 3194–3197. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19991102)38:21<3194::AID-ANIE3194>3.0.CO;2-O. PMID 10556900.
  63. ^ Brauer, G.; Haucke, W. (1936-06-01). "Kristallstruktur der intermetallischen Phasen MgAu und MgHg". Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 33B (1): 304–310. doi:10.1515/zpch-1936-3327. ISSN 2196-7156. MgHg then lends itself to an oxidation state of +2 for Mg and -2 for Hg because it consists entirely of these polar bonds with no evidence of electron unpairing. (translated)
  64. ^ Dong, Z.-C.; Corbett, J. D. (1996). "Na23K9Tl15.3: An Unusual Zintl Compound Containing Apparent Tl57−, Tl48−, Tl37−, and Tl5− Anions". Inorganic Chemistry. 35 (11): 3107–12. doi:10.1021/ic960014z. PMID 11666505.
  65. ^ Pb(0) carbonyls have been observered in reaction between lead atoms and carbon monoxide; see Ling, Jiang; Qiang, Xu (2005). "Observation of the lead carbonyls PbnCO (n=1–4): Reactions of lead atoms and small clusters with carbon monoxide in solid argon". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 122 (3): 034505. 122 (3): 34505. Bibcode:2005JChPh.122c4505J. doi:10.1063/1.1834915. ISSN 0021-9606. PMID 15740207.
  66. ^ Bi(0) state exists in a N-heterocyclic carbene complex of dibismuthene; see Deka, Rajesh; Orthaber, Andreas (May 9, 2022). "Carbene chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth: origin, evolution and future prospects". Royal Society of Chemistry. 51 (22): 8540–8556. doi:10.1039/d2dt00755j. PMID 35578901. S2CID 248675805.
  67. ^ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. 10: 78. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8.
  68. ^ a b Th(-I) and U(-I) have been detected in the gas phase as octacarbonyl anions; see Chaoxian, Chi; Sudip, Pan; Jiaye, Jin; Luyan, Meng; Mingbiao, Luo; Lili, Zhao; Mingfei, Zhou; Gernot, Frenking (2019). "Octacarbonyl Ion Complexes of Actinides [An(CO)8]+/− (An=Th, U) and the Role of f Orbitals in Metal–Ligand Bonding". Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). 25 (50): 11772–11784. 25 (50): 11772–11784. doi:10.1002/chem.201902625. ISSN 0947-6539. PMC 6772027. PMID 31276242.
  69. ^ Morss, L.R.; Edelstein, N.M.; Fuger, J., eds. (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 978-9048131464.
  70. ^ Np(II), (III) and (IV) have been observed, see Dutkiewicz, Michał S.; Apostolidis, Christos; Walter, Olaf; Arnold, Polly L (2017). "Reduction chemistry of neptunium cyclopentadienide complexes: from structure to understanding". Chem. Sci. 8 (4): 2553–2561. doi:10.1039/C7SC00034K. PMC 5431675. PMID 28553487.
  71. ^ a b c Kovács, Attila; Dau, Phuong D.; Marçalo, Joaquim; Gibson, John K. (2018). "Pentavalent Curium, Berkelium, and Californium in Nitrate Complexes: Extending Actinide Chemistry and Oxidation States". Inorg. Chem. 57 (15). American Chemical Society: 9453–9467. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b01450. OSTI 1631597. PMID 30040397. S2CID 51717837.
  72. ^ Domanov, V. P.; Lobanov, Yu. V. (October 2011). "Formation of volatile curium(VI) trioxide CmO3". Radiochemistry. 53 (5). SP MAIK Nauka/Interperiodica: 453–6. doi:10.1134/S1066362211050018. S2CID 98052484.
  73. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 1265. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  74. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5.
  75. ^ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. 10: 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8.
  76. ^ Han, Young-Kyu; Bae, Cheolbeom; Son, Sang-Kil; Lee, Yoon Sup (2000). "Spin–orbit effects on the transactinide p-block element monohydrides MH (M=element 113–118)". Journal of Chemical Physics. 112 (6): 2684. Bibcode:2000JChPh.112.2684H. doi:10.1063/1.480842.
  77. ^ a b Kaldor, Uzi; Wilson, Stephen (2003). Theoretical Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements. Springer. p. 105. ISBN 978-1402013713. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
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