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Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] In a more general sense, the term 'philosophy' can refer to any wisdom, knowledge, or intellectual pursuit in any culture. However, the term most commonly refers to a particular tradition dating back to Socrates and Plato. The term coined by the pre-Socratic thinker Pythagoras.[3][4]

Philosophers might ask very abstract, theoretical questions such as: is it possible to know anything and to prove it?[5][6][7] What is most real? Or they might ask concrete, practical questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if you can get away with it)?[8] Some questions are so basic and important that almost everyone has an opinion about them: do humans have free will or not?[9] Many philosophers attempt to answer such questions by clarifying terms and presenting rigorous arguments.

Since almost any intellectual pursuit can be a philosophical pursuit, there are no widely-agreed upon lines between philosophy and mathematics, art, science, religion, or politics. Philosophers and artists both discuss whether beauty is objective or subjective;[10][11] philosophers and scientists both discuss whether there are many scientific methods or just one;[12] philosophers and religious thinkers both discuss whether there is a God or gods; and philosophers and political thinkers discuss whether creating a political utopia a hopeful dream or foolish fantasy.[13][14] However, it is widely-agreed that philosophical methods often involve asking questions, critical reflection on tradition, religion, and culture, and rational argument.[15][16]

Some develop conceptual systems and defend their positions against rivals. Some philosophers (such as Plato and Hegel) aim for more or less complete systems while others (such as Gettier or Wittgenstein) present individual arguments or problems. No single philosopher can ask and provide detailed answers to every philosophical question.

Introduction

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Philosophy has been understood differently in many cultures and by different generations.

In the broadest sense, "philosophy" is synonymous with "wisdom" or learning. The history of wisdom is inseparable from global history. For every culture and time has a "philosophy", whether prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development (700 BC-300 BC) an Axial Age in human thought because of the sudden appearance of philosophy, science, mathematics, mythology, art, religion, and political society.

Non-western philosophy
Main article: Eastern philosophy

Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a single, monolithic "eastern philosophy". But the term is used in the the West to denote a variety of traditions in China and India, as well as in Japan, Persia, and other regions. Various Eastern philosophies have their own timelines, regions, and philosophers. Major traditions include:

Western philosophy
Main article: Western philosophy

In a narrower, sense, "philosophy" refers to a particular tradition of Western philosophy, dated to the pre-Socratic Greek philosophers.

Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras distinguished himself from other "wise ones" by calling himself a mere lover of wisdom, suggesting that he was not wise.[4] Socrates used this title and insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom.[17] Socrate's student Plato is often credited as the founder of Western philosophy. The philosopher Alfred North Whitehead said of Plato: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them."[18]

Mortimer Adler argues that there are about 102 big ideas that every culture tends to think deeply about: including the self, God, nature, the world, truth, reality, good and evil, and justice and so on.[19]

Philosophy and knowledge

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Traditionally, the term "philosophy" referred to any body of knowledge.[20][21] In this sense, philosophy is closely related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education, and politics. Newton's (1687) "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is now classified as a book of physics. because "natural philosophy" encompassed disciplines today associated with sciences like astronomy, medicine, and physics.[22]

Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:[23]

  1. Natural philosophy ("physics") was the study of the the physical world (physis, lit: nature);
  2. Moral philosophy ("ethics") was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice, and virtue (ethos, lit: custom);
  3. Metaphysical philosophy ("logos") was the study of existence, causation, God, logic, forms, and other abstract objects ("meta-physika" lit: "what comes after physics").[24]

These traditional branches are not obsolete but have morphed. Natural philosophy has transformed into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the various social sciences but still includes value theory (including aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics, philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology.

Philosophical explanation and proof

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Most philosophers agree that the goal of philosophical activity is the construction or discovery of good arguments, and the criticism of bad arguments. But what counts as a good argument? A proof is sufficient evidence or an argument for the truth of a proposition. Some philosophers, called skeptics, believe that there are no good arguments for any important position. Pyrrhonism teachsethat there are good arguments for equal and opposite positions.

Tradition and critical reflection

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Most people do not reflect on their lives until they are old enough to speak, reason, and question authority.

The purpose of philosophy

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Does philosophy aim at truth or merely probability?

Philosophy and progress

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Main article: Philosophical progress

Is philosophy supposed to make "progress" like modern science? Because many philosophical debates begun in ancient times are still debated today, some think that there has been no philosophical progress. Three views

  • No progress. Some, such as Colin McGinn, argue that all the major questions are still unanswered.[25] Stephen Hawking believes that philosophy has been "replaced" by science.
  • Progress. David Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science.[26]
  • No need for progress. Talbot Brewer argues that "progress" across generations is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity, since each individual becomes better as they practice philosophy.[27] Bertrand Russell, in his 1912 book The Problems of Philosophy argues that problems in philosophy are refined rather than solved, saying: "Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions, since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves."

Philosophical Topics

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As with many complex things, the questions that philosophers study are often grouped into related categories. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with others who are interested in the same questions. The groupings also make philosophy much easier to comprehend for students. Students can learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with the entire world of philosophical theories.

There are many possible ways to organize philosophy into basic groupings. Various textbooks and websites present different organizational schemes. Each of the methods of grouping philosophy has its benefits and weaknesses and no single method stands out as the “correct” method. The method of division adopted in this article aims for breadth and simplicity.

In this organizational scheme, all of philosophy is divided into five major branches. Each major branch can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains many specific fields of study.[28]

  1. Metaphysics and epistemology
  2. Value theory (ethics, aesthetics, etc.)[29]
  3. Science, logic, and mathematics[30]
  4. History of Western Philosophy.[31]
  5. Philosophical traditions.

These divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epistemology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with other inquiries such as science, religion, or mathematics.[32]

Metaphysics and Epistemology

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Metaphysics
Main article: Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, the relationship between mind and body, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes, and causation. Traditional branches of metaphysics include cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety, and ontology, the study of being.

  • Philosophy of language explores the nature, the origins, and the use of language.
  • Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind, and its relationship to the body, and is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years there has been increasing similarity between this branch of philosophy and cognitive science.
  • Philosophy of religion explores questions that often arise in connection with one or several religions, including the soul, the afterlife, God, religious experiences, analysis of religious vocabulary and texts, and the relationship of religion and science.
  • Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings, such as rationality, politics, and culture.
  • Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries, and its methods.
Epistemology
Main article: Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek: episteme).[33] Epistemologists study the various sources of putative knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge, and testimony. Tey also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Various kinds of putative knowledge include propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something), and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine some or all of these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.

Value Theory

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Value theory (or axiology) is the major branch of philosophy dealing with such topics as goodness, beauty, and justice. Fields of value theory

Ethics
Main article: Ethics

Ethics, or "moral philosophy," is the branch of axiology that studies good and bad, right and wrong. The primary investigation of ethics or morality is the best way to live.

The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, Meta-ethics , and Applied ethics.

Aesthetics
Main article: Aesthetics

More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature."[34][35] It is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[36][37] It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[38] More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is aesthetic theory as a set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement: such as the Cubist aesthetic.[39]

  • Philosophy of film analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and style explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.
Political Philosophy
Main article: Political philosophy
 
Thomas Hobbes

Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally inter-linked subjects, as both discuss the question of what is good and how people should live.

Other Branches of value theory:

There are a variety of branches of value theory.

  • Philosophy of law (often called jurisprudence) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and the interpretations of law.
  • Philosophy of education analyzes the definition and content of education, as well as the goals and challenges of educators.
  • Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality, and the body including the nature of feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement.
  • Philosophy of sport analyzes activities such as sports, games, and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities.

Logic, Science, and Mathematics

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Many academic disciplines have also generated philosophical inquiry. The relationship between between "X" and the "philosophy of X" is debated. Richard Feynman argues that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to the primary study of a topic, saying that "philosophy of science is as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds." Curtis White, by contrast, argues that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences, and social sciences.[40]

The follow cluster of topics deal with numbers, symbols, and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in philosophy in the social and natural sciences.

Logic

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Main article: Logic

Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argument is "a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition." The connected series of statements are called "premises", and the proposition being established is called the conclusion. For example:

  1. All humans are mortal. (premise)
  2. Socrates is a human. (premise)
  3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,[41] social sciences, and humanities disciplines, logic is classified as a formal science. Sub-fields in logic include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic, computational logic, and non-classical logics. .

Philosophy of science

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This branch explores the foundations, methods, history, implications, and purpose of science.

Philosophy of biology is a subfield of philosophy of science and deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences.

Philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics.

History of Philosophy

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The history of philosophy is also inseparable from the philosophy of history. For example, Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a view called historicism. Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the periods below (or dispute this way of dividing up the historical periods).

Philosophical traditions

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Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical traditions, such as Continental philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy, African philosophy, or something else. Some of these traditions are discussed further below.

History

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See also: History of ethics
Further information: List of years in philosophy
"History of Western Philosophy" redirects here. For the book by Bertrand Russell, see A History of Western Philosophy.

Western philosophy has a long history dating back to the time of Socrates. It is conventionally divided into four large eras:

  • Ancient (from 585 BC-400 AD)
  • Medieval (400 - 1500)
  • Modern (1500 - 1900)
  • Contemporary (20th century to present)

The history of philosophy is a rich field of study. Instead of comprehensive detail, this article provides a brief introduction to each period, with relevant links to other articles.

Ancient

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Main articles: Hellenistic philosophy and Ancient Greek philosophy
 
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right): detail from The School of Athens by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509
The pre-Socratic period
 
Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor

Ancient philosophers first articulated questions about the "arche" (the cause or first principle) of the universe. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with Thales of Miletus, who was active around 585 B.C. and left us the opaque dictum, "all is water." His most noted students were respectively Anaximander (all is apeiron (roughly, the unlimited)) and Anaximenes of Miletus ("all is air"). Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, later lived at Croton in southern Italy (Magna Graecia). Pythagoreans hold that "all is number," giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation.

Socrates
 
Bust of Socrates

The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project that is still pursued today is. It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Socrates used a critical approach called the "elenchus" or Socratic method to examine people's views. He aimed to study human things: the good life, justice, beauty, and virtue. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations. He was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death. Although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poisn hemlock and he died in 399 B.C.

Plato

Socrates' most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied the Socratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato's dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties constitute true reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called "becoming".

Aristotle

Plato's most outstanding student was Aristotle. Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics and logic. Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, and Islamic thinkers.

The Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity.

Medieval

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Main article: Medieval philosophy
Early and Late Medieval Philosophy

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages, roughly extending from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance.[42] Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then widespread sacred doctrines of Abrahamic religion (Islam, Judaism, and Christianity) with secular learning. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the philosophy of Plato himself.

Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. The prominent figure of this period was St. Augustine who adopted Plato's thought and Christianized it in the 4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was checked with the arrival of Aristotle's texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers (including the great St. Anselm of Canterbury) up until the 13th century.

 
St. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas, the father of Thomism, was immensely influential in Catholic Europe; he placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing.

Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Anselm, Gilbert of Poitiers, Peter Abelard, Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Jean Buridan; the Jewish philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides; and the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer, Ibn Khaldūn, and Averroes. The medieval tradition of Scholasticism continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, in figures such as Francisco Suarez and John of St. Thomas.

Late Medieval and Renaissance
Main article: Renaissance philosophy
 
Giordano Bruno

The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,[43] in which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.[44][45] The study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as humanism.[46][47] Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed Petrarch in making man and his virtues the focus of philosophy.[48][49]

Modern

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Main article: Modern philosophy

The term "Modern Philosophy" has multiple usages. For example, Thomas Hobbes is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy.[50][51] By contrast, René Descartes is often considered the the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems of knowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.[52]

 
René Descartes

Modern philosophy and especially Enlightenment philosophy[53] is distinguished by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism;[54][55] a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building;[56][57] and the emergence of modern physics out of natural philosophy.[58]

Early Modern
Main articles: 17th-century philosophy, 18th-century philosophy, and Early modern philosophy
 
John Locke

Some central topics of philosophy in this period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.[59] These trends first distinctively coalesce in Francis Bacon's call for a new, empirical program for expanding knowledge, and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of René Descartes.[60]

Other notable modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.[61][62][63] Many other contributors were philosophers, scientists, medical doctors, and politicians. A short list includes Galileo Galilei, Pierre Gassendi, Blaise Pascal, Nicolas Malebranche, Isaac Newton, Christian Wolff, Montesquieu, Pierre Bayle, Thomas Reid, Jean d'Alembert, Adam Smith, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with Immanuel Kant's systematic attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge, and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom.[64][65][66]

 
Immanuel Kant
 
David Hume
19th-century
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Main article: 19th-century philosophy
 
Friedrich Nietzsche

Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the beginning of the 19th century.[67]

German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system.[68] German idealists, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.[69] Arthur Schopenhauer's identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational will to live influenced later 19th- and early 20th-century thinking, such as the work of Friedrich Nietzsche.

The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge.

 
Hegel

As with the 18th century, developments in science arose from philosophy and also challenged philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

After Hegel's death in 1831, 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of philosophical naturalism, such as the positivism of Auguste Comte, the empiricism of John Stuart Mill, and the materialism of Karl Marx. Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the discipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of George Boole and Gottlob Frege.[70] Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include:

Current approaches

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Main article: Contemporary philosophy

The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Edmund Husserl.

Since the Second World War, contemporary philosophy has been divided mostly into analytic and continental traditions; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on the continent of Europe. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction's usefulness.

Analytic

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Main article: Analytic philosophy
 
Gottlob Frege

In the English-speaking world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school for much of the 20th century.

The term analytic philosophy roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria.

Though the movement has broadened, it was a cohesive school in the first half of the century. Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by logical positivism, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language.


Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis. Russell's classic works The Principles of Mathematics,[71] On Denoting and Principia Mathematica with Alfred North Whitehead, aside from greatly promoting the use of mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, the discussions on the foundations of mathematics; as well as exploring issues of ontological commitment and even metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell tackled often with the aid of mathematical logic.

Gottlob Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic as the first analytic work, according to Michael Dummett (Origins of Analytical Philosophy). Frege took "the linguistic turn," analyzing philosophical problems through language. Some analytic philosophers held that philosophical problems arise through misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of our language.

In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. Years later, he reversed a number of the positions he set out in the Tractatus, in for example his second major work, Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was promoted by Gilbert Ryle, J.L. Austin, and a few others.

In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of Quine was having a major influence, with the paper Two Dogmas of Empiricism. In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable.

 
Patricia Churchland

Notable students of Quine include Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett. The later work of Russell and the philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in the second half of the 20th century. But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new metaphysics" of possible worlds, as in the influential work of David Lewis. Recently, the experimental philosophy movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques.

Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, David Lewis, John Searle, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Michael Dummett, Peter van Inwagen, Saul Kripke and Patricia Churchland.

Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls and Anarchy, State, and Utopia by Robert Nozick, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with Roger Scruton, Nelson Goodman, Arthur Danto and others developing the subject to its current shape.

Continental

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Main article: Continental philosophy

Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. 20th-century movements such as German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism, modern hermeneutics, critical theory, structuralism, poststructuralism and others are included within this loose category. While identifying any non-trivial common factor in all these schools of thought is bound to be controversial, Michael E. Rosen has hypothesized a few common Continental themes: that the natural sciences cannot replace the human sciences; that the thinker is affected by the conditions of experience (one's place and time in history); that philosophy is both theoretical and practical; that metaphilosophy or reflection upon the methods and nature of philosophy itself is an important part of philosophy proper.

The founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective, while Martin Heidegger drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to propose an unconventional existential approach to ontology. In the Arabic-speaking world, Arab nationalist philosophy became the dominant school of thought, involving philosophers such as Michel Aflaq, Zaki al-Arsuzi, Salah al-Din al-Bitar of Ba'athism and Sati' al-Husri.

Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism (Heidegger, Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus) and finally poststructuralism (Gilles Deleuze, Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida). The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental thought. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism.

German idealism

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Main article: German idealism
 
Immanuel Kant

Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781–1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a conceptual or categorical framework on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that things-in-themselves existed independently of our perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.

The most notable work of this German idealism was G. W. F. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "Hegelian dialectic".

Philosophers influenced by Hegel include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, who coined the term projection as pertaining to our inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels; and the British idealists, notably T. H. Green, J. M. E. McTaggart and F. H. Bradley. Few 20th-century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an important philosophical concept today.


Phenomenology

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Main article: Phenomenology (philosophy)
 
Edmund Husserl

Edmund Husserl's phenomenology was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general.[72] An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called intentionality.[73] Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses. Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research assistant), Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism.

Existentialism

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Main article: Existentialism

Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[74][75] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[76] In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[77] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[78][79]

 
Søren Kierkegaard

Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought.[80][81][82]

Structuralism and post-structuralism

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Main articles: Structuralism and Post-structuralism
 
Ferdinand de Saussure

Inaugurated by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the discourses they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man.

Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by poststructuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines, while the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible.

Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes and Jacques Lacan. Post-structuralism came to predominate from the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze and even Roland Barthes; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations.

Critical Theory

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Pragmatism

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Main articles: Pragmatism and Instrumentalism
 
William James

Pragmatism was founded in the spirit of finding a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. The meaning or purport of a statement should be judged by the effect its acceptance would have on practice. Truth is that opinion which inquiry taken far enough would ultimately reach.[83] For Charles Sanders Peirce these were principles of the inquirer's self-regulation, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry is not generally fruitless. The details of how these principles should be interpreted have been subject to discussion since Peirce first conceived them. Peirce's maxim of pragmatism is as follows: "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object."[84] Like postmodern neo-pragmatist Richard Rorty, many are convinced that pragmatism asserts that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their usefulness and efficacy.[85] The late 19th-century American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were its co-founders, and it was later developed by John Dewey as instrumentalism. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as something only established by the future, final settlement of all opinion.[86] Critics have accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth.[87] Thinkers in the pragmatist tradition have included John Dewey, George Santayana, Quine and C. I. Lewis. Pragmatism has more recently been taken in new directions by Richard Rorty, John Lachs, Donald Davidson, Susan Haack, and Hilary Putnam.


Other approaches

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Thomism

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Main article: Thomism
 
Alasdair MacIntyre

Largely Aristotelian in its approach and content, Thomism is a philosophical tradition that follows the writings of Thomas Aquinas. His work has been read, studied, and disputed since the 13th century, especially by Roman Catholics. However, Aquinas has enjoyed a revived interest since the late 19th century, among both atheists (like Philippa Foot) and theists (like Elizabeth Anscombe).[88] Thomist philosophers tend to be rationalists in epistemology, as well as metaphysical realists, and virtue ethicists. Human beings are rational animals whose good can be known by reason and pursued by the will. With regard to the soul, Thomists (like Aristotle) argue that soul or psyche is real and immaterial but inseparable from matter in organisms. Soul is the form of the body. Thomists accept all four of Aristotle's causes as natural, including teleological or final causes. In this way, though Aquinas argued that whatever is in the intellect begins in the senses, natural teleology can be discerned with the senses and abstracted from nature through induction.[89] Contemporary Thomism contains a diversity of philosophical styles, from Neo-Scholasticism to Existential Thomism.[90] The so-called new natural lawyers like Germain Grisez and Robert P. George have applied Thomistic legal principles to contemporary ethical debates, while cognitive neuroscientist Walter Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas." So-called Analytical Thomism of John Haldane and others encourages dialogue between analytic philosophy and broadly Aristotelian philosophy of mind, psychology, and hylomorphic metaphysics.[91] Other modern or contemporary Thomists include Eleonore Stump, Alasdair MacIntyre, and John Finnis.


Neoplatonism

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Applied philosophy

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Martin Luther King Jr.

The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. As Richard Weaver has argued, "ideas have consequences". The study of philosophy yields applications such as those in ethics—applied ethics in particular—and political philosophy. The political and economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Zi, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taimiyyah, Niccolò Machiavelli, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and others—all of these have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. In the field of philosophy of education, progressive education as championed by John Dewey has had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the 20th century. Descendants of this movement include the current efforts in philosophy for children, which are part of philosophy education. Carl von Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics, and military strategy in the 20th century, especially in the years around World War II. Logic has become crucially important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology, computer science, and computer engineering. Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence, and justified belief (important in law, economics, decision theory, and a number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. As such, philosophy has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of B. F. Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music, literature, the plastic arts, and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.

Professional philosophy

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Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model.

 
Bertrand Russell

Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional discipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: "Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields."[92] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.[93]

The end result of professionalization for philosophy has meant that work being done in the field is now almost exclusively done by university professors holding a doctorate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed journals. While it remains common among the population at large for a person to have a set of religious, political or philosophical views that they consider their “philosophy”, these views are rarely informed or connected to the work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book “Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?” and Harry Frankfurt's "On Bullshit” are examples of works that hold the uncommon distinction of having been written by professional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popular among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both works became New York Times best sellers.


Institutions

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The American Philosophical Association

http://www.payscale.com/college-salary-report/majors-that-pay-you-back/bachelors#explanatory


Women in philosophy

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Professional philosopher salaries

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Non-professional philosophy

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Many inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in the broad sense. Novelists, playwrights, filmmakers, musicians, as well as scientists, social scientists, and others engage in recognizably philosophical activity.

Ayn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual working contemporaneously with contemporary philosophy but whose contributions were not made within the professional discipline of "philosophy": "For all her [Ayn Rand's] popularity, however, only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact."[15] Also working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und die praktische Philosophie. Drei Vorträge zur philosophischen Praxis, 1983) and Michel Weber (see his Épreuve de la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.

Pierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot identified and analyzed the "spiritual exercises" used in ancient philosophy (influencing Michel Foucault’s interest in such practices in the second and third volumes of his History of Sexuality). By "spiritual exercises" Hadot means "practices ... intended to effect a modification and a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[6] The philosophy teacher's discourse could be presented in such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor, could make spiritual progress and transform himself within."[7] Hadot shows that the key to understanding the original philosophical impulse is to be found in Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all is the importance given to living contact between human beings. Hadot's recurring theme is that philosophy in Antiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises intended to transform the perception, and therefore the being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best pursued in real conversation and not through written texts and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in universities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original, therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been critically reviewed.[8]


Philosophy and society

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Some of those who study philosophy in college or graduate school become professional philosophers who teach, research, and write in academic institutions.[94]

However, most people trained in academic philosophy go on to contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.[95][96] For example, notable public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer, and vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[97][98] Philosphy majors also earn more on average than business majors.[99]

Philosophy and pop culture

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In 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company began a series of books on philosophy and popular culture. Each book consists of essays written by top philosophers for general readers. The books "explore the meanings, concepts, and puzzles within television shows, movies, music, and other icons of popular culture"[100] analyzing topics such as Seinfeld, The Simpsons, The Matrix, Star Wars, IPod, and Facebook. Their most recent publication (as of 2016) is titled "Louis C.K. and Philosophy."


Philosophy in film

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  • Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure
  • The Matrix
  • Tree of Life
  • Monty Python, Philosopher's Drinking Song, Philosopher's Soccor match


Philosophy policy

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Bioethics is a major influence on public policy.

Media perspectives

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Political usage

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Philosophy and the public

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