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In European genealogy, a descent from antiquity (DFA or DfA) is a proven unbroken line of descent between specific individuals from ancient history and people living today. Descents can readily be traced back to the Early Middle Ages, but beyond that, insufficient documentation of the ancestry of the new royal and noble families of the period makes tracing them to historical figures from antiquity challenging. Though the subject of ongoing effort, no well-researched, historically-documented generation-by-generation genealogical descents are known to exist in Europe.

The idea of descent from antiquity is by no means new to genealogy. Hellenistic dynasties such as the Ptolemies claimed ancestry from deities and mythical figures. In the Middle Ages, major royal dynasties of Europe sponsored compilations claiming their descent from Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great, and in particular the rulers of Troy (see also Euhemerism). Such claims were intended as propaganda glorifying a royal patron by trumpeting the antiquity and nobility of his ancestry. These lines of descent included not only mythical figures but also outright invention, much of which is still widely perpetuated today. The distinguishing feature of a DFA compared to such traditional pedigrees is the intent to establish an ancestry that is historically accurate and verifiable in each generation of the descent, setting the DFA apart from the legendary descents found in medieval genealogical sources and from modern pseudogenealogical descents appearing in books like The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail and The Da Vinci Code. DFA research has focused on the ancestries of royal and noble families, since the historical record is most complete for such families. Particular attention has focused on possible genealogical links between the new dynasties of western Europe from which well-documented descents are known, such as the Carolingians, Robertians, Cerdicings and the Astur-Leonese dynasty, through the ruling families of the post-Roman Germanic dynasties and Franco-Romans to the gentility of the Roman Empire, or in the Eastern Mediterranean linking the royal Armenian wives of some Byzantine emperors through the ruling families of the Caucasus to the rulers of the Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman-client kingdoms of the Middle East.

The phrase descent from antiquity was used by Tobias Smollett in the 18th-century newspaper The Critical Review. Reviewing William Betham's Genealogical Tables of the Sovereigns of the World, from the earliest to the present period he wrote "From a barren list of names we learn who were the fathers or mothers, or more distant progenitors, of the select few, who are able to trace what is called their descent from antiquity."[1] The possibility of establishing a DFA as a result of serious genealogical research was raised in a pair of influential essays, by Iain Moncreiffe and Anthony Wagner. Wagner explored the reasons why it was difficult to do, and suggested several possible routes. The following years have seen a number of studies of possible routes through which an appropriately documented descent might be found. These routes typically involve either linkages among the ruling dynasties of the post-Roman Empire Germanic states, or those between the ancient dynasties of the Caucasus and the rulers of the Byzantine Empire. Though largely based on historical documentation, these proposed routes have invariably resorted to speculation based on known political relationships and onomastics - the tendency of families to name children in honor of relatives is used as evidence for hypothesized relationships between people bearing the same name. Proposed DFAs vary greatly both in the quality of their research and the degree to which speculation plays a role in their proposed connections.

No European DFA is accepted as established. The outlines of several possible ancestries that could become DFAs have been proposed, but they each lack crucial evidence. Nonetheless, the pursuit of DFAs has stimulated detailed inquiry into the prosopography of ancient and early medieval societies.

Overview

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The idea of descent from antiquity is by no means new to genealogists. Hellenistic dynasties, such as the Ptolemies, claimed descent from gods and legendary heroes. In the Middle Ages, major royal dynasties of Europe sponsored compilations claiming their descent from Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great, in particular the rulers of Troy (see also British Israelism, Euhemerism). Such claims were intended as propaganda glorifying a royal patron by trumpeting the antiquity and nobility of his ancestry. These descent lines included not only mythical figures but also stretches of outright fiction, much of which is still widely perpetuated today. The distinguishing feature of a DFA compared to such efforts is the intent to establish an ancestry that is historically accurate and verifiable. Nevertheless, DFA research still focuses on the ancestries of royal and noble families, since the historical record is most complete for such families.

The phrase descent from antiquity was used by Tobias Smollett in the 18th-century newspaper The Critical Review. Reviewing William Betham's Genealogical Tables of the Sovereigns of the World, from the earliest to the present period he wrote "From a barren list of names we learn who were the fathers or mothers, or more distant progenitors, of the select few, who are able to trace what is called their descent from antiquity."[2] The possibility of establishing a DFA as a result of serious genealogical research was raised in a pair of influential essays, by the Albany Herald, Sir Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk, and the late Garter King of Arms, Sir Anthony Wagner. Wagner explored the reasons why it was difficult to do, and suggested several possible routes, based on the work of genealogists such as Prince Cyril Toumanoff, Prof. David H. Kelley, Christian Settipani and Ford Mommaerts-Browne. The following years have seen a number of studies of the possibilities. These are highly variable in the quality of their research. Many, if not most, of the DFA-related publications widely used by amateur genealogists are essentially worthless.

No DFA is accepted as established at this time. However, research has established the outlines of several possible or likely ancestries that could become DFAs. Moreover, the project has stimulated detailed inquiry into the prosopography of ancient and early medieval societies, an effort which is of great value in illuminating the social transformations which took place in those societies.

Postulated routes in Europe

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Innumerable alternative routes of descent from antiquity have been posited.

Rome to Charlemagne

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One proposal is to establish Charlemagne's descent from one of the senatorial families of the later-day Imperial Rome based in southern Gaul. This project is of particular interest since all European royal families can trace their descent from Charlemagne, as can many other people who are able to trace their descent from European nobility. While such a link possibly existed, extant sources do not permit reconstructing it with any degree of certainty. The record of senatorial families in the 5th and 6th centuries is very sparse. While a large amount of data exists with which to construct a prosopography of the leading provincial families of Imperial Rome in southern Gaul, it is not yet possible to establish a Gallic line that traverses the Imperial Age, though a Roman line through a Gallic one had been proposed in 1991 by Christian Settipani. Therefore, all reconstructions of the DFA through Western European monarchs must remain precarious at best and speculative at worst. Though two possible lines are proposed for the ancestry of Arnulf of Metz, both are linked to the ancestors who are in turn reputedly linked to the Gallo-Roman genealogies. One of these proposes a descent from the proconsul Flavius Afranius Syagrius.

Rome to Hermenegildo Gutiérrez

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A possible alternative route to Settipani's original scheme goes through the Counts of Coimbra in 9th century Portugal. That route was originally suggested in a discussion between Settipani and Francisco Antonio Doria; it starts with a comes Ardabastus (born circa 611), son of a Visigoth refugee in Byzantium, Athanagild (in turn son of Saint Hermenegild and Ingunthis) and of Flavia Juliana (a Byzantine noblewoman related to the family of Emperor Maurice), that later moved to Provincia Spaniae (Byzantine possession in Spain) and fathered Erwig, king of the Visigoths (680–687). It is argued that this individual was descended from a Byzantine Artavazd of the great Mamikonian clan. The line is documented in a controversial deed that links the full descent to the historically attested count Hermenegildo Gutiérrez (878). The deed itself is dubious, and while some have suggested that the genealogy it contains could still be authentic, the lack of surviving documentation from the period spanned makes independent evaluation impossible. It is also said that the mentioned Count Ardabastos was a great-nephew of Emperor Maurice, grandson of his brother Peter Augustus, whose ancestry, though Armenian, was of a lower birth. Even if Count Ardabastos was "only" a grand-nephew of Emperor Maurice, with no kinship to the Mamikonians, through his maternal grandmother Anastasia Areobinda (wife of Peter Augustus and great-great granddaughter of Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius, Roman consul in 517) he was a lineal descendant of the Valentinian and Theodosian dynasties, as well as of the very ancient gens Anicia, whose first mention dates back to the end of the 4th century BC (Quintus Anicius Praenestinus, curule aedile in 304 BC[3]). If the proposed links between Count Ardabastos and Hermenegildo Guterres are correct, it would be possible to trace a blood-link between Theodosius I or Valentinian I and Ramiro II of León (grandson of Hermenegildo Gutiérrez) and so to the modern European royal houses.

Attila the Hun to Charlemagne

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Many genealogists attempted to reconstruct a valid line of descent from Attila the Hun to Charlemagne but no one succeeded in working out a generally accepted route.

Steven Runciman's book on the First Bulgarian Empire, for instance, includes a pedigree of Kubrat from Attila's youngest son, Ernakh, as the Bulgarian khans apparently believed to have been descended from Attila. While no sources are cited and intermediate generations are missing, there is another complication in the Bulgarian route: no documented link between the Bulgarian dynasty and Charlemagne.

Christian Settipani suggested a more plausible descent, although it cannot be reconstructed generation by generation as well. The scholar gives credit to the traditional claim that Attila's daughter was one of many wives of Ardaric, king of the Gepids. It is assumed that the 6th-century Gepid rulers descended from Ardaric and that some royal Gepids claimed descent from this marriage in particular, although details are unclear.

A key link is the documented alliance between a Gepid princess Austrigusa and Waccho, king of the Lombards. According to Settipani, Waccho and Austricusa were ancestors of either Charlemagne's mother or his father, but this claim involves a considerable degree of speculation as well.

Rome to Kings of Wales

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According to the Pillar of Eliseg, which was erected in Denbighshire, Wales in the 9th century, the 8th-century Welsh King of Powys Elisedd ap Gwylog descended from reputed 5th-century "King of the Britons" Vortigern and his wife Sevira, who in turn was the daughter of Western Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus.[4] If the genealogy inscribed in the Pillar of Eliseg is correct, it would be possible to trace a blood-link between Ancient Rome and modern descendants of Medieval Welsh nobility, given that Magnus Maximus's father reputedly was part of the gens Julia and that Welsh kings until the Edwardian Conquest of Wales descended from Elisedd ap Gwylog. However, the Pillar of Eliseg's inscription is the only known source for a daughter of Magnus Maximus named "Sevira" (or "Severa").

Charlemagne to the Mughals

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Charlemagne to the Mughals is a genealogical route connecting Charlemagne with the Mughal dynasty of India. According to this route, numerous oriental rulers, including those of Brunei and the Maldives, should be counted among Charlemagne's descendants.

Charlemagne's great grandson, Emperor Louis II, was the father-in-law of Boso of Provence, whose grandson was Rudolph II of Burgundy. The latter's grandson, Emperor Otto II, was the father-in-law of Ezzo and grandfather of Richeza of Poland. Her grandson, Ladislaus I of Hungary, was the father of Saint Eirene, the only wife of Emperor Ioannes II, who forms a key gateway between early medieval Europe and Byzantium.

Ioannes II and Saint Eirene are thought to have been matrilineal ancestors of Eudokia Palaiologina, Michael VIII's daughter and the only wife of John II of Trebizond. The latter's male-line descendant, John IV of Trebizond, had a natural daughter, Theodora Megala Komnene, who was taken as a wife by Uzun Hassan of White Sheep Turkmen. Shah Ismail I of Persia was their grandson. His Safavid descendants, particularly those governing Kandahar, frequently married the Mughal dynasts and emperors, who passed Charlemagne's blood to other families of oriental royalty. That offspring includes and starts with Shah Jahan.

Non-European DFAs

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Ethiopia

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The Solomonic dynasty, formerly sovereign in Ethiopia, has long claimed descent from King Solomon of the Kingdom of Israel and the Queen of Sheba. For all of its circumstantial evidence, the well known claim is nonetheless unverifiable due to the fact that reliable documentation is lacking before the 13th century. Outside of this case in particular, similar oral traditions of various descents from antiquity exist in nations and amongst peoples from all over the African continent.

West Africa

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Amongst the Yorubas of West Africa, for example, there is a popular belief that the numerous members of the tribe are all descendants of Oduduwa, their semi-mythical emperor and founding father, who is believed to have reigned in the 11th or 12th century. Contemporary social status in their various kingdoms, therefore, is traditionally reckoned by what can be described as tanistry: If a person can claim to be a direct descendant of the emperor through the lines of his progeny (i.e. his children and grandchildren) as opposed to being an indirect one through those of his more distant relatives, then he or she is probably a dynastic member of one of the royal or high noble families within the contemporary Yoruba chieftaincy system. As with the aforementioned claim by the Ethiopians, however, genealogical verification is generally difficult in these cases due to an absence of written corroboration.

Pre-Columbian America

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Another such case for descent from antiquity originates in the Americas (i.e. pre-Columbian civilization) for the descendants of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II (himself a direct descendant of the first Aztec king Acamapichtli), among whom can be counted titled members of the Bourbon, Stuart, Habsburg, and Hohenlohe noble houses[5][6] (as well as untitled people such as Eduardo Matos Moctezuma). Moctezuma is considered the ancestor of the holders of the titles of Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo, Duke of Ahumada, Count of Miravalle, Duke of Abrantes, Conde de la Enjarada, Conde de Alba de Yeltes,[7] Duke of Atrisco[6], Duke of Medinaceli and Duke of Alba.

Jewish

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See also: Kohen § Kohen genetic testing

Many living Jewish families believe that they can trace their ancestry to King David through rabbis of the Middle Ages including Rashi and Judah Loew, the Maharal of Prague. While there is controversy over the accuracy of some of the lines, claims for complete lines are recorded in books written by Jewish scholars.[8] A number of other Jewish families claim descent from Aaron as members of the Kohanim, the Jewish priestly caste. They historically served as officiants in Solomon's temple in Jerusalem, and even today are still bound by rabbinical law in certain cases.

Islam

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Social privileges and immunities accorded to descendants of Muhammad have led to a vast quantity of false declarations of their lineages. Similar to other parts of the world, claiming noble ancestry helped reinforce a ruler. In the Ottoman Empire, tax breaks for "the People of the House" encouraged many people to buy certificates of descent or forge genealogies; the phenomenon of teseyyüd—falsely claiming noble ancestry—spread across ethnic, class, and religious boundaries. In the 17th century, an Ottoman bureaucrat estimated that there were 300,000 impostors; in 18th-century Anatolia, nearly all upper-class urban people claimed descent from Muhammad.[9] The number of people claiming such ancestry—which exempted them from taxes such as avarız and tekalif-i orfiye—became so great that tax collection was very difficult.[10] The Hashemite kings of Jordan,[11] the Alaouite kings of Morocco,[12][13] and the Aga Khans,[14] all claim descent from Muhammad or his close relatives.

China

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Due to China's long history of literacy, cultural continuity, and tradition of keeping family records, China has a number of families claiming DFA, including some of the oldest in existence. The following are some examples:

Kung Tsui-chang, who succeeded to the title Sacrificial Official to Confucius in the Republic of China in 2009, is claimed to be the 79th-generation male-line descendant of Confucius, and many other Chinese claim descent from this line.[15][16] Confucius himself was said to be a descendant of the Dukes of Song, who in turn were said to be descendants of the Shang dynasty kings. A 75th-generation descendant of Mencius and a 75th-generation descendant of Zengzi,[17][18] and a descendant of Yan Hui also have titles of Sacrificial Officials.[19]

In 2013, researchers at Fudan University reported that a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found similarities in their Y chromosomes showing they descend from a common blood line.[20]

In 1452, Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen 孟希文 56th generation[21][22][23][24][25][26][27] and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui 顔希惠 59th generation,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27] the same was bestowed on the offspring of Zhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian 週冕 12th generation,[28][29][30][31][32][33] the two Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren 程克仁 17th generation[21][22][23][24][25][26][27]), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting 朱梴 (Zhu Chan?) 9th generation,[34][35][36] in 1456-1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to Zeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui 曾質粹 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.[37][38] Zhang Zai's offspring received the appointment as wujing boshi along with Zhu Xi's, Cheng Hao's, Cheng Yi's, and Zhou Dunyi's offspring.[39]

Confucian sages (Disciples of Confucius and Neo Confucian scholars) offspring were granted the office of "Wujing Boshi" (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì).[40] There were 22 of them.[41][42][43] "Present Day Political Organization of China" by V.V. Hagelstrom and H.S. Brunnert contains a list of people who were awarded the title:[44] The title of 五經博士 Wu3 Ching1 Po2 Shih4, or simply 博士 Po2 Shih4 (literary designation, 大瀚博 Ta4 Han4 Po2), is also transmitted to the eldest, in a direct line, of the descendants of the following famous men of antiquity : 1. 周公 Chou1 Kung1, 2. 顏淵 Yen2 Yüan1, 3. 曾子輿 Tsêng1 Tzu3-yü2, 4. 閔子騫 Min3 Tzu3-ch'ien1, 5. 仲季路 Chung4 Chi4-lu4, 6. 有子有 Yu3 Tzu3-yu3, 7. 端木子貢 Tuan1 Mu4 Tzu3 Kung4, 8. 卜子夏 Pu3 Tzu3-hsia4, 9. 言子游 Yen2 Tzu3-yu2, 10. 冉伯牛 Jan3 Po2-niu2, 11. 冉仲弓 Jan3 Chung4-kung1, 12. 顓孫子張 Chuan1 Sun1 Tzu3 Chang1, 13. 孟子 Mêng4 Tzu3, 14. 伏生 Fu2 Shêng1, 15. 韓愈 Han4 Yü4, 16. 周敦頤 Chou1 Tun1-i2, 17. 邵雍 Shao4 Yung1, 18. 程顥 Ch'êng2 Hao4, 19. 程頤 Ch'êng2 I2, 20. 張載 Chang 1 Tsai3, 21. 朱熹 Chu1 Hsi3, and 22. 關羽 Kuan1 Yü3.[45][46][47][48] It was also granted to the cadet branch of the Confucius family at Quzhou.[49][50][51][52][53]

Zhang Daoling's offspring, The Celestial Masters held the title of 正一嗣教眞人.[54][55][56]

Lords of the Zhou dynasty claim descent from deified legendary figures in pre-historic era. As such, all families descended from Zhou dynasty rulers can, in turn, trace descent back to gods and heroes in Chinese mythology. This includes the Confucius and Mencius families mentioned above, who both claim traceable descent from the Yellow Emperor. The Five Emperors were asserted as ancestors of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.[57]

The modern purported descendants of Cao Cao were authenticated with Y chromosome DNA testing, since the remains of Cao Cao's great-uncle provided Y chromosome O2*-M268 which matched that of the claimed descendants.[58]

There are numerous families in China who purportedly claim descent from antiquity figures. Some of these lines go back to pre-Qin dynasties, which in turn can be traced back into legendary history.[59][60]

The Sui dynasty emperors claimed to be patrilineally descended from the Zhou dynasty kings.[61]

The Tang dynasty emperors claimed to be patrilineally descended from the ancient philosopher Laozi (whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er),[62] the Han dynasty General Li Guang,[63][64] and Western Liang ruler Li Gao. The Yenisei Kirghiz khagans claimed to be descended from Li Ling, who was a grandson of Li Guang, and therefore claimed to be related to the Tang dynasty emperors.[65][66] This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏) which includes Li Bai.

Descendants of the Tang Emperors live in Chengcun village near the Wuyi mountains in Fujian.[67]

The Shatuo Later Jin leader Shi Jingtang claimed descent from the Han dynasty chancellor Shi Fen (石奮).[68]

The Song dynasty chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086) was descended from the imperial family of the Jin dynasty (265–420).

The Qing dynasty official Yue Zhongqi (岳鐘琪), who served as the Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu provinces during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, was a descendant of the Song dynasty general Yue Fei.

One of the Duke of Zhou's 72-generation descendants family tree was examined and commented on by Song Lian.[69]

The Zhikou (Chikow) Chiangs such as Chiang Kai-shek were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh who during the 1600s (17th century) moved there from Fenghua district, whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century AD. The 12th-century BC Duke of Zhou's (Duke of Chou) third son was the ancestor of the Chiangs.[70][71][72][73][74][75]

Japan

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In East Asia, a descent from antiquity may be easier to establish. The Japanese imperial family claims descent from the Emperor Ōjin,[76][77] who is generally considered historical, though his time of life is uncertain. However, contemporary Japanese records do not commence until several centuries after Ōjin's time, and the tradition reports a major change to a cadet line shortly before the start of the literate period.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Smollett, Tobias (1798). "Pye's Naucratia". The Critical Review. 23: 298.
  2. ^ Smollett, Tobias (1798). "Pye's Naucratia". The Critical Review. 23: 298.
  3. ^ T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1952).
  4. ^ The Pillar of Eliseg inscription on the Celtic Inscribed Stone Project website.
  5. ^ William Nemos; Thomas Savage; Joseph Joshua Peatfield (1883). History of Mexico, Vol. I 1516–1521. A.L. Bancroft. pp. XIV and 141.
  6. ^ a b Donald E. Chipman (2005). Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty under Spanish Rule, 1520–1700. University of Texas Press. pp. XIV and 141. ISBN 978-0-292-70628-6.
  7. ^ Grandesp.org.uk
  8. ^ "Rav-SIG: Online Journal > Are You a Descendant of King David?, Page 3". www.jewishgen.org. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
  9. ^ Canbakal, Hülya (2009). "The Ottoman State and Descendants of the Prophet in Anatolia and the Balkans (c. 1500–1700)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 52 (3): 542–578. doi:10.1163/156852009X458241.
  10. ^ Acun, Fatma (2002). "The Other Side of the Coin: Tax Exemptions within the Context of Ottoman Taxation History". Bulgarian Historical Review. 1 (2).
  11. ^ King Hussein official site "The Hashemites are thus the direct descendants of the Prophet through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali bin Abi Talib, who was also the Prophet’s paternal first cousin."
  12. ^ The Alawi Dynasty – Brief History
  13. ^ "Kingdom of Morocco's (Alaoui dynasty)". Archived from the original on 2005-08-29. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
  14. ^ "His Highness the Aga Khan". Archived from the original on 2010-12-03. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
  15. ^ "Confucius' Family Tree Recorded biggest". Chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
  16. ^ "New Confucius Genealogy out next year". China Internet Information Center. 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-01. With a history of over 2,500 years covering more than 80 generations, and the longest family tree in the world according to the Guinness Book of Records, the fifth edition of the Confucius Genealogy will be printed in several volumes in 2009, according to an organizer of the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC).
  17. ^ 台湾儒家奉祀官将改为无给职 不排除由女子继任
  18. ^ 台湾拟将孔子奉祀官改为荣誉职 可由女性继承
  19. ^ 台湾拟减少儒家世袭奉祀官职位并取消俸禄
  20. ^ Chen, Stephen (13 November 2013). "Study finds single bloodline among self-claimed Confucius descendants". South China Morning Post.
  21. ^ a b c "熾天使書城----明史". www.angelibrary.com. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  22. ^ a b c "Kanripo 漢籍リポジトリ : KR2m0014 欽定續文獻通考-清-嵇璜". www.kanripo.org. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  23. ^ a b c Sturgeon, Donald. "欽定歷代職官表 : 卷六十六 - 中國哲學書電子化計劃維基". ctext.org. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  24. ^ a b c "明史 中_翰林院". inspier.com. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  25. ^ a b c "●欽定續通典卷三十一 職官九-续通典-四大名著文学网". www.sidamingzhu.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  26. ^ a b c http://15269682.blog.hexun.com.tw/102536659_d.html[permanent dead link]
  27. ^ a b c "workingyam76的網路日誌 :: 隨意窩 Xuite日誌". 隨意窩 Xuite日誌. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  28. ^ http://baike.baidu.com/subview/1569345/6981614.htm
  29. ^ "周敦颐_百度百科". wapbaike.baidu.com. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  30. ^ "周敦颐". www.zhangzhiyong.cn. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  31. ^ "周敦颐 - 中文百科". m.zwbk.org. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  32. ^ "周敦頤-中文百科在線". www.zwbk.org. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  33. ^ "人人网 - 抱歉". blog.renren.com. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  34. ^ "朱熹在建瓯之二——逝后的恩泽". www.360doc.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  35. ^ "朱熹生平活动年表". www.douban.com. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  36. ^ "弥足珍贵的"朱熹对镜自画像"_河阳朱氏_新浪博客". blog.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  37. ^ p. 571. The Ritual Formation of Confucian Orthodoxy and the Descendants of the Sage researchgate.net
  38. ^ Wilson, Thomas A.. 1996. “The Ritual Formation of Confucian Orthodoxy and the Descendants of the Sage”. The Journal of Asian Studies 55 (3). [Cambridge University Press, Association for Asian Studies]: 559–84. doi:10.2307/2646446. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2646446 p. 571.
  39. ^ Chang Woei Ong (2008). Men of Letters Within the Passes: Guanzhong Literati in Chinese History, 907-1911. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-674-03170-8.
  40. ^ Xinzhong Yao (11 May 2015). The Encyclopedia of Confucianism: 2-volume Set. Routledge. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-1-317-79349-6.
  41. ^ Mark P. McNicholas (5 April 2016). Forgery and Impersonation in Imperial China: Popular Deceptions and the High Qing State. University of Washington Press. pp. 128–. ISBN 978-0-295-80623-5.
  42. ^ Forgery and Impersonation in Late Imperial China: Popular Appropriations of Official Authority, 1700--1820. 2007. pp. 199–. ISBN 978-0-549-52893-7.
  43. ^ Xinzhong Yao (2003). RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism. RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-0-415-30652-2.
  44. ^ FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 858–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.
  45. ^ H.S. Brunnert; V.V. Hagelstrom (15 April 2013). Present Day Political Organization of China. Routledge. pp. 493–494. ISBN 978-1-135-79795-9.
  46. ^ "台灣苗栗有劉邦後代". Archived from the original on 2016-04-25.
  47. ^ "Present day political organization of China". archive.org. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
  48. ^ H.S. Brunnert; V.V. Hagelstrom (15 April 2013). Present Day Political Organization of China. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79794-2.
  49. ^ Thomas A. Wilson (2002). On Sacred Grounds: Culture, Society, Politics, and the Formation of the Cult of Confucius. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 69, 315. ISBN 978-0-674-00961-5.
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  58. ^ Ancient DNA of Emperor CAO Cao's granduncle matches those of his present descendants: a commentary on present Y chromosomes reveal the ancestry of Emperor CAO Cao of 1800 years ago.
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  68. ^ Wudai Shi, ch. 75. Considering the father was originally called Nieliji without a surname, the fact that his patrilineal ancestors all had Chinese names here indicates that these names were probably all created posthumously after Shi Jingtang became a "Chinese" emperor. Shi Jingtang actually claimed to be a descendant of Chinese historical figures Shi Que and Shi Fen, and insisted that his ancestors went westwards towards non-Han Chinese area during the political chaos at the end of the Han Dynasty in early 3rd century.
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  76. ^ Emperors, Shoguns, & Regents of Japan
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References

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  • C. J. Bennett, A Babylonian Ancestry for King Darius, Journal of Ancient and Mediæval Studies XII (1995) 41–56
-- Annotations to the Egyptian Descent in the Descents From Antiquity Charts, Journal of Royal and Noble Genealogy 1:2 (1996) 2–10 (much of which is incorporated in the DFA discussion file here: buratto.net)
-- Ptolemaic Descendants is a webpage that summarizes some hypotheses for Ptolemaic descents.
  • I. Moncreiffe of that Ilk & D. Pottinger, Blood Royal, (Nelson, London, 1956).
  • T. S. M. Mommaerts-Browne, 'A Key to Descents from Antiquity', Journal of Ancient and Medieval Studies III, (1984–85) 76–107
-- Monomachos, Tornikes and an Uncharted Caucasian Ancestry, in Foundations, 2:2, (2006), 158–162.
-- Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité: Etudes des possibilités de liens généalogiques entre les familles de l'Antiquité et celles du haut Moyen-Age européen (Editions Christian, Paris, 1991)
-- Nouvelle histoire généalogique de l'auguste maison de France: La préhistoire des Capétiens, 1993
-- Continuité gentilice et continuité sénatoriale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale, Prosopographica et Genealogica vol. 2 (Linacre College, Oxford, 2000). See also Addenda et Corrigenda and Review by Nathaniel Taylor
-- Onomastique et Parenté dans l'Occident médiéval, 2000, en collaboration avec K.S.B. Keats-Rohan
-- La noblesse du Midi Carolingien, 2004
-- Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs. Les princes caucasiens et l'Empire du VIe au IXe siècle, 2006
-- Roman Genealogical Continuity and the "Descents from Antiquity" Question: A Review Article, The American Genealogist, 76 (2001) 129–136. Also available at Roman Genealogical Continuity
  • A. R. Wagner, Bridges to Antiquity in Pedigree and Progress: Essays in the Genealogical Interpretation of History (Phillimore, London, 1975)
  • Bierbier, M. L. (1998), "The Descendants of Theodora Comnena of Trebizond", The Genealogist, 12 (1)


Category:Genealogy Category:Kinship and descent

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