The Heiminsha (平民社 Commoners' Society) was a socialist group in Japan active from 1903 until 1905.[1] Their main priorities were to disseminate socialist, anti-imperialist, and antiwar ideas in Japan during the onset and throughout the Russo-Japanese War. Most notably, they ran a weekly publication called the Heimin Shimbun (The Commoner’s News), Japan's first socialist newspaper.[1] The Heiminsha criticized the capitalistic and militaristic qualities of the Japanese government, advocating for pacifism and popular sovereignty. The group was comprised of both men and women and many members identified as Democratic Socialists.[2] The group also translated and distributed a number of important books on Western socialist theory.
History
editMeiji Restoration and the Rise of Capitalism
editIn 1868, the samurai class launched a revolution to overthrow the shogunate (幕府 bakufu) government and restore imperial rule.[3] The main goal in reinstating power to the emperor was to strengthen Japan against foreign, colonial powers. This revolution, or restoration, later known as the Meiji Restoration, signaled the beginning of Japanese industrialization. The Japanese slogan “Fukoku Kyōhei” (富国強兵) meaning “National Wealth and Military Strength!”, reflected this desire to advance and compete against imposing imperial powers.[3]
Creation of the Working Class
editFrom 1869-1871, the new government embarked on the deconstruction of Japanese fiefs and institution of prefectures run by the state.[3] This was ironically detrimental to the careers of the samurai, many of whom had played central roles in the Meiji Restoration. With fiefs gone, feudal lords experienced massive cuts to their income, leaving many samurai out of business.
In a series of domino effects, the Artisan class found themselves similarly left without business. Many had supported themselves by meeting the demands of the samurai class. With the samurai class quickly dissipating, artisans were forced to abandon their skilled craftsmanship as well. Additionally, technological advancements in methods of production introduced by the West, made the masterful techniques of the artisan class less valued.[3]
Like the samurai, the artisans were aware that only yesterday, they had been regarded desirably in society and were now somehow left in poverty. This awareness of a growing class divide contributed to a working class consciousness that fueled socialist thought in Japan later on.
Most of the new working class, however, came from the peasantry. With the dissolution of fiefs, the restriction of travel between feudal property (which was primarily the countryside) and towns was removed. The restrictions had been made to keep peasants economically dependent on their feudal lords. Now, peasants flowed freely into towns, working in growing industries such as silk weaving and sake brewing factories.[3]
The development of capitalism in Japan was neither fast nor intended. Many of the rising working-class of this period were only “half-proletarianised”, known as “han nō han kō”, or “half-peasant/half-worker”.[3] In this sense, capitalism in Japan during the Meiji Era was still only half formed. Therefore, socialists of this period could not fully criticize capitalism within their state, whether they realized it or not.
Early Socialist Sentiment in Japan
editBefore the West brought the literature and language to fully express such ideas, many Japanese socialists began as observant social critics.[4] Much of the early socialist actions in Japan took the form of peasant uprisings known as ikkō-ikki.[3] This idea of the innate right of a lesser class to rebel and set demands for fairer treatment and distribution of goods influenced further socialist thought among later generations.
At the turn of the 19th century, the growing pace of industrialization and worsening mistreatment of female laborers in factories spurred protest.[4] In 1897, Japan's first unions rose, and with it, an increase in labour strikes.[5] Socialist organizing in Japan largely began from this growing labor movement. The first sustained socialist organizations came about in the late 1890's. They included The Knights of Labour (Shokkō Giyūkai), The Society for the Promotion of Labour (労働組合 Rōdō Kumiai Kiseikai), and The Society for the Study of Socialism (社会主義研究会 Shakai Shugi Kenkyūkai).[5]
The on-set of the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905) also gained much criticism, sparking an antiwar and anti-imperialist movement led by socialists and pacifists.[1] In response to such social critiques and protests, the government took harsh measures to quell the dissent. They enacted a series of Peace Preservation Laws in hopes of restricting political dissent. Among these were the Peace Regulations of 1887 that gave police the power to disband meetings and the Public Peace Police Law of 1900, which prohibited women, minors, police, and military from engaging in political activity.[5] This turned a number of reformists into even more radical activists – many thereafter delving further into anarchism, syndicalism, and socialism.[4]
Founding
edit
The Heiminsha was formed on October 8th, 1903 by Toshihiko Sakai and Shūsui Kōtoku right after their resignation from the Yorozu Chōhō (Everything Morning News) with another former Yorozu Chōhō member, Ishikawa Sanshiro, and a former Niroku reporter Hishikawa Kojirō.[1] The Yorozu Chōhō (Everything Morning News) was a daily newspaper that Sakai and Kōtoku had been writers and editors for since 1898. The paper had supported many radical, socialist columns written by both Sakai and Kōtoku. This decision to quit came after the paper’s declaration towards a nationalist, pro-war stance against Russia, pressured by the Japanese government and financial supporters. Kōtoku and Sakai stated:
From the perspective of socialism, only a small elite of aristocrats and military find profit in war between nations, while the immense majority of the people are offered up as sacrifices in war.[1]
Ideology
editHeimin Shimbun (Commoners' News)
editThe Heiminsha began the weekly news publication the Heimin Shimbun (Commoners' News) on November 15, 1903 just a month after their formation.[1] The publication was a blatant rebuttal against the jingoism many newspapers, including the Yorozu Chōhō (Everything Morning News) took to during the oncoming of the Russo-Japanese War.
Based in Tokyo, The Heimin Shimbun began with a circulation of 8,000 copies, but by the start of the Russo-Japanese war, due to its radical antiwar position, only sold about 1,700 copies.[1] Sakai and Kōtoku believed they would be able to financially support themselves through it, having quit their jobs for its full dedication. It was published every Monday until January 29, 1905.[1]
The Heimin Shimbun was the first of its kind: a socialist, propaganda paper, yet also a business enterprise.[2] It reflected many of the main ideologies of the Heiminsha. Along with it's strong pacifist mission, the Heimin Shimbun became a very internationalist publication as well, disseminating socialist views from around the world and encouraging political cooperation between nations.
On March 20th, 1904 they sent a “greeting of mutual comradeship” to the Russians at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war. Members of the Heiminsha expressed their objection to the imperialistic desires of Japan in going to war, citing militarism and patriotism as the enemies of socialists.[2][3] They expressed sympathies for their fellow Russian socialists saying:
Dear Comrades! When you suffer under the oppression of your government and the pursuit of cruel detectives, please remember that there are thousands of comrades in a distant land, who are praying for your health and success…[2][3]
A member of the Heiminsha, Koken Yamaguchi, explained his view of socialism as resembling ‘a big family’ in which life necessities and happiness were equally desired and aspired for all. In his ideal society, Yamaguchi goes on to say that there would be "no difference between ranks" and oppressive class and gender distinctions would be eradicated.[5]
Reception
editThe Heimin Shimbun appealed to the youth. Many students joined the socialist movement, traveling across the country to gain subscriptions for the Heimin Shimbun and sell other socialist readings that the Heiminsha produced.[2]
Translated works include[4]:
Sixteen Years in Siberia, by Lev Deutsch
Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx
The Quintessence of Socialism, Albert Schäffle
As the Heiminsha began to expand, new branches opened up such as one in Osaka.[2] The government did not take liking to the growth of the Heiminsha as well. In May of 1904, they began to crack down. The government focused on two main charges against socialism in Japan: “The anti-war speeches will kill patriotism” & “Socialist propaganda tries to break up the system of caste, and leads often to criticism of the Imperial Household.”[2]
Kōtoku and Sakai were thought to be leaders in the Japanese socialist movement. Since their founding of the Heiminsha, they pushed socialism in Japan to become more intellectual, radical and based in marxist theory.[3]
Discontinuation
editThe publication of two specific pieces, one by Ishikawa Sanshiro titled “To the Grammar School Teachers” and the other, Kōtoku’s translation of the Communist Manifesto instigated public trials. The charges were on “acts in opposition to the Imperial constitution”.[2] Ultimately, the Heiminsha’s printing presses were shut down.[1]
In their last publication, the Heiminsha imitated Marx’s journal, Neue Rhenische Zeitung, printing their last issues on January 29, 1905, in bold, red print. On the front page, Kōtoku exclaimed “Shedding tears, we now declare the discontinuation of the Heimin Newspaper.”[1] Kōtoku was sentenced to 5 months in jail, while Ishikawa Sanshiro to seven.[2]
Women in the Heiminsha
editThe Heiminsha was the first real conjunction of feminism and socialism in Japan. For the time, it was radically inclusive, including several female members and acknowledged women's rights as a part of socialist values. Although many of these women were still subjected to gendered stereotypes as the caretakers of the men in the Heiminsha, they were still engaged intellectuals and activists.[5] Notable women include Kanno Sugako, Fukuda Hideko, and Itō Noe.[4] The Heiminsha actively supported women's suffrage.
Kōtoku notably blamed war for the low status of women in their society, citing its value of masculinity as the culprit.[5] He believed women's position would only improve with the eradication of war, and that women should work for peace.
Weekly meetings were held at the Heimin headquarters in Tokyo for a more serious study of socialism among the Heiminsha members. Women who were a part of the Heiminsha were prohibited from attending any of these 'men-only' political meetings and instead met once a month separately.[2]
Matsuoka Fumiko, an active female member of the Heiminsha, exemplifies the strong humanistic quality of early socialism in Japan and it's appeal to women in a speech of hers saying:
When you mention socialism, there are many people who understand it as something violent, but socialism is in fact a set of ideas deep in mercy. Thus, I believe that women, who are naturally gentle and full of sympathy must agree with socialism, and women’s (voices) will be heard on certain points. I think that the power of women is stronger than has been supposed, and women should give up being shy and reticent, and devote all their energies to socialism.[5]
End and Aftermath
editAfter the Heimin Shimbun’s discontinuation, the Heiminsha began an alternative magazine called Chokugen (Straight Talk) until the end of the war a few months later.[1] As the militarized government increased its oppressive measures against free speech, publications like the Chokugen were prevented from speaking about socialist movements within the country. Consequently, the Chokugen, and the socialist movement in Japan became increasingly more intellectual and international as the war continued.[2]
The Chokugen, as well as the Heiminsha disbanded primarily due to the great riots in September, 1905 after the end of the Russo-Japanese war.[2] The Japanese military took over and shut down the publication with no formal explanation given. However, the Heiminsha had grown quite a bit since its conception, while revenue had remained stagnant. Along with increasing hurdles from government intervention, it became hard to organize and move the movement forward.
The Heiminsha also split due to various ideological differences. Some members identified more as Christian socialist while others associated more as material socialists.[5] In February of 1906 however, the split factions of the Heiminsha attempted to come together once again and formed The Japan Socialist Party (日本社会党 Nihon Shakai-tō). This new organization was short-lived, dissolving in 1907 after new ideological differences. Some members were more moderate, while others such as Kōtoku and Kanno were more radical.[4] Rather than effecting change through incremental legal pursuits and parliamentary tactics such as the moderates sought, radicals believed in the necessity for direct action and fundamental, revolutionary change.
See Also
editSocialist Thought in Imperial Japan
Shinkigen (新紀元 New Era)
Socialist People's Party (社会民主党 Shakai Minshūtō)
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Tierney, Robert (2015). Monster of the Twentieth Century. Oakland, California: University of California Press. pp. 1–97. ISBN 978-0-520-28634-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Katayama, Sen (1918). The Labor Movement in Japan. 376-380 West Monroe St: Charles H. Kerr & Company. pp. 86–100. ISBN 0985890959.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j Crump, John (1983). The Origins of Socialist Thought in Japan. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010: St. Martin's Press, Inc. pp. 3–27. ISBN 0-312-58872-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ a b c d e f Hane, Mikiso (1988). Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: Rebel Women in Prewar Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 0-520-06259-0.
Many socialists and communists got their start as social critics
- ^ a b c d e f g h Mackie, Vera (1997). Creating Socialist Women in Japan. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–58. ISBN 0521551374.