User:PiCo/sandbox

Resurrection of Christ by Noël Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus

The resurrection of Jesus is the belief that God raised Jesus from the dead. Christians celebrate the resurrection of Jesus on Easter Sunday, two days after Good Friday, the day of his crucifixion. Easter's date corresponds roughly with Passover, the Jewish observance associated with the Exodus, that is fixed for the night of the Full moon near the time of the spring equinox.

The death of Jesus

• Jesus went to his death deliberately and willingly, as the culmination of his role as the messianic Son and Man and Suffering Servant of Isaiah.
• Jesus identified himself as the Suffering Servant of the Book of Isaiah who willingly accepts death in order to fulfill God's plan for atonement. He saw himself as a prophet in the line of Isaiah, Ezekiel and Jeremiah, whose souls had been taken up into heaven and whose undecayed bodies awaited the resurrection of the dead.

Cultural and historical background

Resurrection of Jesus, Jesus Christ, part of the Resurrection group. Marble, before 1572.

The New Testament and the Resurrection

Jesus of Nazareth was crucified c. 30 CE. His resurrection on the third day thereafter is alluded to throughout the New Testament documents, the earliest accounts being the epistles of Paul and the most extensive the four Gospels.

Paul was a Jew and a pharisee and an early persecutor of the followers of Jesus, but became a follower himself c. 37 CE after witnessing the resurrected Jesus (the story is alluded to in his letters to various Christian communities, and by Luke the Evangelist in the Acts of the Apostles). He founded several Christian communities throughout the eastern portion of the Roman Empire, to whom he wrote letters in the decades of the 50s. In a section of one of these letters, 1 Corinthians, he passed on what he had heard from Saint Peter, James the brother of Jesus and the other disciples concerning the very first post-resurrection appearances of Jesus.

Cultural background: Jewish and pagan beliefs regarding resurrection

Lamentation at the Tomb, 15th century.

Jewish belief in resurrection began to develop towards the end of the Biblical period, first as a resurrection of the soul alone, later, with the sect of the Pharisees, of the body as well. Nevertheless, the idea of a resurrection of the flesh was a marginal one among the Jews; another sect, the Essenes, believed that while the soul was immortal, the body would return to dust. Daniel 12:3 speaks of the resurrected soul becoming a star, meaning an angel, for the stars were identified as heavenly beings in the court of God. This, according to the gospels, was the stance of Jesus, who defended it in an exchange with the Sadducees, a sect which did not believe in any form of resurrection: "Those who are accounted worthy ... to the resurrection from the dead ... are equal to the angels and are children of God..." (Mark 12:24-25, Luke 20:34-36). Paul's vision of the resurrected Christ falls within the general pattern of Jewish beliefs in a fleshless immortal soul. Another important Jewish understanding about resurrection was that it would be a communal event at the end of history: at the moment of Christ's resurrection, according to Matthew, "many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised ... they came out of the tombs and entered the Holy City and appeared to many" (Matthew 27:52-53): Matthew is saying that with the Resurrection of Jesus the end-time general resurrection predicted by Daniel, Hosea and other prophets had begun.

The Greeks had long held that a meritorious man could be resurrected as a god after his death (the process of apotheosis). The successors of Alexander the Great made this idea very well known throughout the Middle East, in particular through coins bearing his image – a privilege previously reserved for gods – and although originally foreign to the Romans, the doctrine was soon borrowed by the emperors for purposes of political propaganda. According to the theology of Imperial Roman apotheosis, the earthly body of the recently deceased emperor vanished, he received a new and divine one in its place, and was then seen by credible witnesses; thus, in a story similar to the Gospel appearances of the resurrected Jesus and the commissioning of the disciples, Romulus, the founder of Rome, descended from the sky to command a witness to bear a message to the Romans regarding the city's greatness ("Declare to the Romans the will of Heaven that my Rome shall be the capital of the world...") before being taken up on a cloud.

The New Testament texts

Women at the empty tomb, by Fra Angelico, 1437–1446.

The "foundational creed" and Paul

The earliest evidence of belief in the resurrection of Jesus is a brief passage in Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, written around 52-55 CE. Fearing that the Corinthians are beginning to question the resurrection, he reminds them of what he has received himself from the apostles, listing, apparently in chronological order, those who had witnessed the risen Christ: first Peter, then "the Twelve," then a crowd of 500, then James (presumably James the brother of Jesus), then "all the Apostles," and last Paul himself:

[W]hat I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas (Peter), and then to the Twelve. After that, he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still living, though some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles, and last of all he appeared to me also, as to one abnormally born. (1 Corinthians 15:3-7).

Peter and the Twelve are probably original to the list, but not all scholars believe the same of the 500, James, and "all the Apostles". It is difficult to correlate this with the appearances in the gospels, and Paul makes no mention of the empty tomb.

The resurrection is the basis for Paul's entire faith: Jesus died and was raised from the dead, and his resurrection is the first sign of the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God in which he will reign. The bodies in which believers will be resurrected, he tells the Corinthians, will not be earthly bodies of flesh and blood (1 Corinthans 15:50) but heavenly bodies, made of the same substance as the sun, moon and stars (15:40-41,49) – Paul is drawing here on the ancient belief, common to both Greeks and Jews, that the stars are living but spiritual beings, made of a "fiery" substance. In Philippians he talks about the "glorious body" of Christ and how Christ will transform our earthly bodies into a similar glorious form; he insists that he does not even want to know Jesus "according to the flesh," but only the resurrected Christ.

Comparison of narratives in the Gospels and Acts

Matthew	Mark	Luke	John	Acts
Empty tomb 28:1–7	Empty tomb 16:1–7	Empty tomb 24:1–7	Empty tomb 20:1–10
Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene and the other Mary 28:9–10	Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene 16:9		Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene20:11–18
	Jesus appeared to two disciples 16:12	Jesus appeared to two disciples 24:13–31		Jesus appeared to apostles for forty days 1:3
Jesus appeared to eleven disciples 28:16–20	Jesus appeared to eleven disciples 16:14–18	Jesus appeared to disciples 24:36–50	Jesus appeared to disciples;20:19–31 Jesus appeared again to disciples21:1–22
				Jesus promises the Holy Spirit1:4–8
	Jesus was taken up into heaven 16:19	Jesus was taken up into heaven 24:51		Jesus was taken up into heaven1:9–11

Mark, written c.AD 70, was the first of the gospels. Matthew, written c.AD 80, and Luke, written soon after Matthew, took Mark as their source for the empty tomb stories but added their own independent resurrection appearances, diverging at the point where their common source ended. John, written c.AD 90, is generally agreed to have drawn on independent but parallel traditions. The differences between them are so great as to make harmonisation difficult if not impossible.

The Resurrection narratives in Mark, Matthew, Luke/Acts and John
Element	Mark c. AD 70 (ending at Mark 16:8)	Matthew c.AD 80	Luke/Acts c. AD 85-90	John c.AD 90
Discovery of the empty tomb	Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome come to the tomb early on Easter Sunday morning; they find the stone rolled aside and the tomb empty and a "young man" (probably to be understood as an angel) inside; he tells them Jesus is risen and that they should tell the disciples and Peter that they will see him in Galilee as he foretold; the women flee in fear and tell no one.	Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" come to the tomb early on Easter Sunday morning; an angel comes down from heaven and rolls back the stone, soldiers guarding the tomb faint, and the angel informs the women that Jesus is risen and that they should tell the disciples to meet him in Galilee; the women leave in fear and joy to inform the disciples, and on the way Jesus appears to them and repeats the angelic instruction to meet in Galilee.	Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James and other women come to the tomb early on Easter Sunday morning; they find the stone rolled aside and the tomb empty; two men (probably to be understood as angels) appear and tell them that Jesus is risen; the women tell the disciples "and all the rest"; the disciples do not believe them, but Peter runs to the tomb and finds it empty.	Mary Magdalene comes to the tomb early on Easter Sunday morning; she finds the stone rolled aside and the tomb empty and runs to inform Peter and "the disciple whom Jesus loved," who run back to the tomb and find it empty; Peter and the "beloved disciple" leave, and Mary Magdalene sees two angels inside the tomb; Jesus appears, and tells her to tell the disciples that he will ascend to God.
Post-resurrection appearances	none, although a meeting in Galilee is foreshadowed in Mark 14:28.	The eleven disciples depart for Galilee, where Jesus appears to them on a mountain; they worship him, though some doubt, and Jesus tells them that he has been given all power in heaven and earth, and that they should teach and baptise all the nations.	On the same day as the empty tomb is discovered, two followers of Jesus meet him on the road to Emmaus, and he explains to them the prophecies concerning the death and resurrection of Israel's messiah; the two return at once to Jerusalem to inform the disciples, and Jesus appears among them to inform them that all that has happened was in accordance with Scripture; he instructs them to stay in Jerusalem until the coming of the Holy Spirit.	On the evening of the day of his resurrection Jesus comes to the disciples and breathes on them so that they receive the Holy Spirit; eight days later he comes again, so that Thomas, who was absent from the first appearance, might see and believe, "but blessed are they that have not seen, and yet believe." Later in Galilee Jesus appears to six disciples as they are fishing, and they eat together; he gives a charge of pastoral care to Peter and makes an ambiguous prediction about the fate of the Beloved Disciple. (Chapter 21 of John, in which the Galilean appearances are found, is almost universally regarded as a later addition to the original gospel).
Ascension of Jesus	The angel's declaration, "her is risen," supposes an ascension (or rather exaltation) without earthly appearances.	none	Gospel of Luke (Luke 24:50-53): On the evening of the day of his resurrection Jesus leads the disciples out to Bethany (on Mount Olivet) and is carried up to heaven. Acts of the Apostles (Acts 1:1-9): Forty days after the resurrection Jesus leads the disciples to Olivet, tells them not to ask when the Kingdom will be restored but to witness to Christ throughout the world, and is taken up in a cloud to heaven.	none, although Jesus foreshadows his ascension in his meeting with Mary.

Empty tomb

The discovery of the empty tomb is first mentioned by Mark: Paul is silent on the subject, although he would surely have heard of it, having spent two weeks as Peter's house-guest within a few years of the resurrection; the evidence therefore suggests that it was new in Mark's day. Mark wrote for a Gentile Christian community, and the empty tomb is in keeping with the Greco-Roman tradition in which the physical body was essential for divine immortalisation. The fear-induced silence of the women presumably served to explain to readers why it had remained unknown for so long.

Matthew and Luke expanded the story they found in Mark. Matthew adds a meeting between the women and the risen Jesus and describes Mark's promised meeting in Galilee, while Luke suppresses it, turning the angel's instruction into a remembrance of prophecies about the death and resurrection of the Son of Man. John's story shows signs of being woven together of several originally independent sources: Mary is supposedly alone when she discovers the tomb, but speaks of what "we" saw when she reports to the disciples, and the account of her return to the tomb with Peter and the second disciple is filled narrative inconsistencies.

Post-resurrection appearances

Matthew, Luke and John add the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus, but these are difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile with the list in 1 Corinthians 15 or with each other. Luke's stories seem designed to counter two separate sources of opposition, the first the Greco-Roman argument that resurrected heroes should be transported directly to heaven, the second the idea that Jesus had never been a body of flesh and blood (the Docetist heresy).

John, more than any of the other gospels, shows signs of having been edited into its present shape from numerous originally separate sources. Just what these sources were remains mysterious: John is not directly dependent on the previous gospels, but there are signs that that he may have known and used them as sources, and he certainly knew and used similar traditions. Chapter 20, containing the "empty tomb" story and two linked appearances in Jerusalem, marks the original conclusion of the gospel; chapter 21, Jesus' appearances in Galilee, was added by a separate hand not long after.

In all three gospels the risen Christ is physical: "Touch and feel me; a spirit does not have flesh and bones just as you can see that I have," Jesus says to the disciples in Luke 24:39, and he and drinks with them to prove that he is resurrected flesh and neither a ghost nor an angel. Nevertheless there are signs, such his sudden appearances and disappearances, that this body is not quite identical with his earthly body, but an intermediate stage before his Ascension and exaltation in heaven. The older model of non-physical visions continued in other New Testament works, as in Luke's stories of the appearances to Stephen and others (including three differing accounts of the visionary appearance to Paul on the Road to Damascus), and John of Patmos's vision of Christ in heaven presiding over the divine Book of Revelation.

Ascension of Jesus

In Luke 24, in the evening of the day on which he was raised from the dead, Jesus leads the eleven disciples to Bethany, a village on the Mount of Olives not far from Jerusalem, where he instructs them to remain in Jerusalem until the coming of the Holy Spirit and blesses them. "And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he parted from them, and was carried up into heaven. And they worshiped him, and returned to Jerusalem with great joy." Acts 1 describes a meal on the Mount of Olives, at which Jesus commands the disciples to await the coming of the Holy Spirit: a cloud then takes him upward from sight, and two men in white appear to tell them (the disciples) that he will return "in the same way you have seen him go into heaven." Luke and Acts appear to be describing the same event, but present quite different chronologies, Luke placing it on the same day as the resurrection and Acts forty days afterwards; various proposals have been put forward to resolve the contradiction, but the question remains open.

The Gospel of John has three references to Jesus' ascension in his own words: "No one has ascended into heaven but he who descended from heaven, the son of man" (John 3:13); "What if you (the disciples) were to see the son of man ascending where he was before?" (John 6:62); and to Mary Magdalene after his Resurrection, "Do not hold me, for I not yet ascended to my father..." (John20:17). The last of these has mystified commentators – why should Mary be prohibited from touching the risen but not yet ascended Christ, while Thomas is later invited to do so?

Theology

Emperor Constantine and bishops with the Creed of 381.

Matthew's account of the meeting with the risen Jesus underlines the authority of the church as the successor to the earthly Jesus, but just why he and Mark lay such stress on Galilee as the setting for for this encounter has mystified scholars, some taking it as a metaphor for the gentile mission, others as the location of the Second Coming.

John's Jerusalem appearances stress the theological theme of seeing and believing, this being the point of the Doubting Thomas story.

In the teachings of the apostolic Church, the resurrection was seen as heralding a new era. Forming a theology of the resurrection fell to the apostle Paul. It was not enough for Paul to simply repeat elementary teachings, but as Hebrews 6:1 states, "go beyond the initial teachings about Christ and advance to maturity". Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ's Resurrection and redemption. Paul explained the importance of the resurrection of Jesus as the cause and basis of the hope of Christians to share a similar experience.

The teachings of the apostle Paul formed a key element of the Christian tradition and theology. If His death stands at the center of Paul's theology, so does the Resurrection: unless the one died the death of all, the all would have little to celebrate in the resurrection of the one. Paul taught that, just as Christians share in Jesus' death in baptism, so they will share in his resurrection for Jesus was designated the Son of God by his resurrection.Rom 1:4 In 1 Corinthians 15:20–22 Paul states:

But Christ really has been raised from the dead. He is the first of all those who will rise. Death came because of what a man did. Rising from the dead also comes because of what a man did. Because of Adam, all people die. So because of Christ, all will be made alive.

The Apostolic Fathers, discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus, including Ignatius (50–115), Polycarp (69–155), and Justin Martyr (100–165). Following the conversion of Constantine and the liberating Edict of Milan in 313, the ecumenical councils of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on Christology helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within Liturgy.

Belief in bodily resurrection was a constant note of the Christian church in antiquity. And nowhere was it argued for more strongly than in North Africa. Saint Augustine accepted it at the time of his conversion in 386. Augustine defended Resurrection, and argued that given that Christ has risen, there is Resurrection of the Dead. Moreover, he argued that the death and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of man, stating: "to achieve each resurrection of ours, the savior paid with his single life, and he pre-enacted and presented his one and only one by way of sacrament and by way of model."

The 5th century theology of Theodore of Mopsuestia provides an insight into the development of the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection. The crucial role of the sacraments in the mediation of salvation was well accepted at the time. In Theodore's representation of the Eucharist, the sacrificial and salvific elements are combined in the "One who saved us and delivered us by the sacrifice of Himself". Theodore's interpretation of the Eucharistic rite is directed towards the triumph over the power of death brought about by the Resurrection.

The emphasis on the salvific nature of the Resurrection continued in Christian theology in the next centuries, e.g., in the 8th century Saint John of Damascus wrote that: "... When he had freed those who were bound from the beginning of time, Christ returned again from among the dead, having opened for us the way to resurrection" and Christian iconography of the ensuing years represented that concept.

Historicity

Main article: Historicity and origin of the Resurrection of Jesus

5 part resurrection icon, Solovetsky Monastery, 17th century.

Jesus, in his earthly ministry, carried on the apocalyptic program of John the Baptist: the Kingdom of God was at hand, God was separating the wheat from the chaff, and he would burn the chaff with his fire. This reflected beliefs already circulating in Jesus' day, as set out in certain of the Dead Sea Scrolls: God would soon send his Messiah to make his reign evident to the world, injustice and suffering would would end, and God would rule. So when Jesus sent his disciples to the people of Israel it was with this key message: "The kingdom of God (or of heaven) is near!" (Matthew 10:7 and Luke 9:2, 10:9 and 11). Jesus taught his disciples that it was part of God's plan that the Messiah suffer and give up his life. Basing himself in the scriptures (especially Daniel and Isaiah, but many other works), Jesus believed that his suffering and death would redeem Israel and bring about the kingdom.

From the beginning of the Christian movement Christians believed that Jesus had been raised from the dead and exalted to heaven as Christ and Son of God. The authority for this belief was the series of appearances which Paul lists in 1 Corinthians 15:1-11: Peter, the disciples and apostles, James and the 500. These appearances were visionary in nature, in keeping with the Jewish tradition of divine revelation through waking visions, trances and dreams. Paul describes such a visionary revelation in 2 Corinthians 12:1-2: "I will go on to visions and revelations from the Lord... I know a man in Christ who fourteen years ago was caught up to the third heaven, whether it was in the body or out of the body I do not know — God knows..." This, said Paul, was how Christ had appeared to him, and he had appeared to Peter and James in just the same way.

Attempts to determine the historicity of the Gospels and of Acts are severely hampered by the decades that separate them from the events and by the uncertainty of determining the backgrounds and intentions of their authors. Scholars are agreed that the similarity of the gospel stories to each other, in content and order of events, is due to literary dependence (i.e., they authors were copying each other).

Conversely, Helmut Koester writes that the stories of the resurrection were originally epiphanies in which the disciples are called to a ministry by the risen Jesus and were interpreted as physical proof of the event at a secondary stage. He contends that the more detailed accounts of the resurrection are also secondary and do not come from historically trustworthy sources, but instead belong to the genre of the narrative types.

N. T. Wright argues that the account of the empty tomb and the visionary experiences point towards the historical reality of the resurrection. He suggests that multiple lines of evidence from the New Testament and the early Christian beliefs it reflects shows that it would be highly unlikely that belief in the empty tomb would simply appear without a clear basis in the memory of early Christians. In tandem with the historically certain visionary experiences of the early disciples and apostles, Jesus' resurrection as a historical reality becomes far more plausible. Wright treats the resurrection as a historical and accessible event, rather than as a 'supernatural' or 'metaphysical' event.

Summarizing its traditional analysis, the Catholic Church stated in its Catechism: "Although the Resurrection was an historical event that could be verified by the sign of the empty tomb and by the reality of the apostles' encounters with the risen Christ, still it remains at the very heart of the mystery of faith as something that transcends and surpasses history."

Doubts of historicity and other interpretations

Peter Kirby, the founder of EarlyChristianWritings.com, states that, "Many scholars doubt the historicity of the empty tomb."^[a] According to Robert M. Price, Christian "apologists love to make the claims ... that the resurrection of Jesus is the best attested event in history", but "probabilistic arguments" show that "the resurrection is anything but an open-and-shut case". Robert Greg Cavin, a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at Cypress College, states that, "our only sources of potential evidence, the New Testament Easter traditions, fall far short of providing the kind of information necessary for establishing the resurrection hypothesis."^[b]

Biblical scholar Géza Vermes analyzes this subject in his book, The Resurrection. He concludes that there are eight possible theories to explain the "resurrection of Jesus". Vermes outlines his boundaries as follows,

I have discounted the two extremes that are not susceptible to rational judgment, the blind faith of the fundamentalist believer and the out-of-hand rejection of the inveterate skeptic. The fundamentalists accept the story, not as written down in the New Testament texts, but as reshaped, transmitted, and interpreted by Church tradition. They smooth down the rough edges and abstain from asking tiresome questions. The unbelievers, in turn, treat the whole Resurrection story as the figment of early Christian imagination. Most inquirers with a smattering of knowledge of the history of religions will find themselves between these two poles.

From his analysis, Vermes presents the remaining six possibilities to explain the resurrection of Jesus account, (1) "The body was removed by someone unconnected with Jesus", (2) "The body of Jesus was stolen by his disciples", (3) "The empty tomb was not the tomb of Jesus", (4) Buried alive, Jesus later left the tomb", (5) Jesus recovered from a coma and departed Judea, and (6) the possibility that there was a "spiritual, not bodily, resurrection". Vermes states that none of these six possibilities are likely to be historical.

According to N. T. Wright in his book The Resurrection of the Son of God, "There can be no question: Paul is a firm believer in bodily resurrection. He stands with his fellow Jews against the massed ranks of pagans; with his fellow Pharisees against other Jews." And according to Gary Habermas, "Many other scholars have spoken in support of a bodily notion of Jesus’ resurrection."

Habermas also points out three facts in support of Paul's belief in a physical resurrection body. (1) Paul is a Pharisee and therefore (unlike the Sadducees) believes in a physical resurrection. (2) In Philippians 3:11 Paul says "That I may attain to the ek anastasis (out-resurrection)" from the dead, which according to Habermas means that "What goes down is what comes up". And (3) In Philippians 3:20–21 "We look from heaven for Jesus who will change our vile soma (body) to be like unto his soma (body)". According to Habermas, if Paul meant that we would change into a spiritual body then Paul would have used the Greek pneuma instead of soma.

Flavius Josephus (c. 37–c. 100), a Jew and Roman citizen who worked under the patronage of the Flavians, wrote the Antiquities of the Jews c. 93 which contains a passage known as the Testimonium Flavianum. This passage mentions John the Baptist and Jesus as two holy men among the Jews. Most modern scholars believe the original text of the work has been changed by Christian editors. The text mentions the death and resurrection of Jesus: "When Pilate, upon the accusation of the first men amongst us, condemned [Jesus] to be crucified, those who had formerly loved him did not cease [to follow him], for he appeared to them on the third day, living again, as the divine prophets foretold, along with a myriad of other marvellous things concerning him."

There are various other arguments against the historicity of the resurrection story. For example, the number of other historical figures and gods with similar death and resurrection accounts has been pointed out.^[c] However the majority consensus among biblical scholars is that the genre of the Gospels is a kind of ancient biography and not myth. Robert M. Price claims that if the resurrection could, in fact, be proven through science or historical evidence, the event would lose its miraculous qualities. In a more focused argument, Carrier asserts that, "The surviving evidence legal and historical, suggests that Jesus was not formally buried Friday night," but that "it had to have been placed Saturday night in a special public graveyard reserved for convicts. On this theory, the women who visited the tomb Sunday morning mistook its vacancy."

New Testament historian Bart D. Ehrman recognizes that "Some scholars have argued that it's more plausible that in fact Jesus was placed in a common burial plot, which sometimes happened, or was, as many other crucified people, simply left to be eaten by scavenging animals." He further elaborates by saying: "[T]he accounts are fairly unanimous in saying (the earliest accounts we have are unanimous in saying) that Jesus was in fact buried by this fellow, Joseph of Arimathea, and so it's relatively reliable that that's what happened."

Easter

Main article: Easter

Easter, the preeminent feast that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus, is clearly the earliest Christian festival. Since the earliest Christian times, it has focused on the redemptive act of God in the death and resurrection of Christ.

Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as he prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper. He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. 1 Corinthians states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed"; this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.

In Christian art

Main article: Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art

The Chi Rho with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection, above Roman soldiers, c. 350.

In the Catacombs of Rome, artists just hinted at the Resurrection by using images from the Old Testament such as the fiery furnace and Daniel in the Lion's den. Depictions prior to the 7th century generally showed secondary events such as the Myrrhbearers at the tomb of Jesus to convey the concept of the Resurrection. An early symbol of the resurrection was the wreathed Chi Rho, whose origin traces to the victory of emperor Constantine I at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, which he attributed to the use of a cross on the shields of his soldiers. Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a labarum with the Chi Rho killing a serpent.

The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the Resurrection over death, and is an early visual representations of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his triumphal resurrection, as seen in the 4th century sarcophagus of Domitilla. in Rome. Here, in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable, and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth. Given the use of similar symbols on the Roman standard, this depiction also conveyed another victory, namely that of the Christian faith: the Roman soldiers who had once arrested Jesus and marched him to Calvary now walked under the banner of a resurrected Christ.

The cosmic significance of the Resurrection in Western theology goes back to Saint Ambrose who in the 4th century said that "The universe rose again in Him, the heaven rose again in Him, the earth rose again in Him, for there shall be a new heaven and a new earth". This theme developed gradually in the West, and later than in the East, where the Resurrection was early linked to redemption and the renewal and rebirth of the whole world. In art this was symbolized by combining the depictions of the Resurrection with the Harrowing of Hell in icons and paintings. A good example is from the Chora Church in Istanbul, where John the Baptist, Solomon and other figures are also present, depicting that Christ was not alone in the resurrection. The depiction sequence at the 10th century Hosios Loukas shows Christ as he pulls Adam, followed by Eve from his tomb, signifying the salvation of humanity after the resurrection.

Gallery of art

For a larger gallery, please see: Resurrection gallery

• 
  Hans Rottenhammer
• 
  Hans Memling
• 
  Luca Giordano
• 
  Hans Multscher
• 
  Dieric Bouts
• 
  Marco Basaiti
• 
  Piero della Francesca, 15th century
• 
  Alonso López de Herrera
• 
  Lucas Cranach, 1558
• 
  Raphael, 1449–1502

See also

• Chronology of Jesus
• Divine Mercy Sunday
• Dying god
• Easter
• Empty tomb
• Entombment of Christ
• Gospel harmony
• Tomb of Jesus:
  • The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the ground on which the church stands is venerated by most Christians as Golgotha, the Hill of Calvary, where the New Testament says that Jesus was crucified. This tomb is venerated as the tomb of Christ by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox churches, and Oriental Orthodox churches.
  • The Garden Tomb, discovered in the 19th century, considered the actual site of Jesus' grave by some Protestant Christians.
  • Talpiot Tomb, discovered in 1980, subject of the controversial documentary The Lost Tomb of Jesus
• Myrrhbearers

Notes

a.^{^} In a note, Kirby states, "A very abbreviated list of twentieth-century writers on the NT who do not believe that the empty tomb is historically reliable: Marcus Borg, Günther Bornkamm, Gerald Boldock Bostock, Rudolf Bultmann, Peter Carnley, John Dominic Crossan, Stevan Davies, Maurice Goguel, Michael Goulder, Hans Grass, Charles Guignebert, Uta Ranke-Heinemann, Randel Helms, Herman Hendrikx, Roy Hoover, Helmut Koester, Hans Küng, Alfred Loisy, Burton L. Mack, Willi Marxsen, Gerd Lüdemann, Norman Perrin, Robert M. Price, Marianne Sawicki, John Shelby Spong, Howard M. Teeple, and John T. Theodore".

b.^{^} Cavin continues "... even on the assumption of their complete historical reliability ... This assumption, of course, is rightly dismissed in light of contemporary New Testament scholarship".

c.^{^} Robert M. Price points to the accounts of Adonis, Appollonius of Tyana, Asclepius, Attis, Empedocles, Hercules, Osiris, Oedipus, Romulus, Tammuz, and others.

References

Bibliography

• Barclay, John (2010). "I Corinthians". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Pauline Epistles. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191034664.
• Barnett, Paul William (2005). The Birth of Christianity: The First Twenty Years. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802827814.
• Brown, Raymond E. (1973). The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809117680.
• Buckham, Richard (2002). Gospel Women: Studies of the Named Women in the Gospels. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802849991.
• Burkett, Delbert (2002). An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521007207.
• Carroll, John T. (2000). "Eschatology". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
• Casey, Maurice (2010). Jesus of Nazareth. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567645173.
• Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. Abingdon Press. ISBN 9781426724756.
• Charlesworth, James H. (2008b). Resurrection: The Origin and Future of a Biblical Doctrine. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781426724756.
• Chester, Andrew (2007). Messiah and Exaltation: Jewish Messianic and Visionary Traditions and New Testament Christology. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161490910.
• Collins, Adela Yarbro (2009). "Ancient Notions of Transferal and Apotheosis". In Seim, Turid Karlsen; Økland, Jorunn (eds.). Metamorphoses: Resurrection, Body and Transformative Practices in Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110202991.
• Collins, John J. (2002). "Early Christianity". In Barton, John (ed.). The Biblical World. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415275743.
• Cook, Stephen L. (2003). The Apocalyptic Literature. Abingdon. ISBN 9780687051960.
• Cotter, Wendy (2001). "Greco-Roman Apotheosis Traditions and the Resurrection in Matthew". In Thompson, William G. (ed.). The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846730.
• De Conick, April D. (2006). "What Is early Jewish and Christian Mysticism?". In De Conick, April D. (ed.). Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism. SBL. ISBN 9781589832572.
• De Jong, Matthijus (2008). "Mark 16:8 As A Satisfying Ending To The Gospel". In Buitenwerf, Rieuwerd; Hollander, Harm W.; Tromp, Johannes (eds.). Jesus, Paul, and Early Christianity. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004170339.
• Dunn, James (1997). Jesus and the Spirit. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802842916.
• Endsjø, D. (2009). Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. Springer. ISBN 9780230622562.
• Finney, Mark (2016). Resurrection, Hell and the Afterlife: Body and Soul in Antiquity, Judaism and Early Christianity. Routledge. ISBN 9781317236375.
• Houlden, Leslie (2015). "Kingdom of God". In Minard, Antone (ed.). Jesus in History, Legend, Scripture, and Tradition. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610698047.
• Hurtado, Larry W. (2005). How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God?: Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802828613.
• Hurtado, Larry W. (2015). One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9780567657701.
• Kim, Seyoon (2011). "The Son of Man" as the Son of God: A Selection. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 9781610973687.
• Lehtipuu, Outi (2015). Debates Over the Resurrection of the Dead: Constructing Early Christian Identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198724810.
• Lewis, Scott M. (2004). What are They Saying about New Testament Apocalyptic?. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809142286.
• Lorenzen, Thorwald (2004). Resurrection and Discipleship: Interpretive Models, Biblical Reflections, Theological Consequences. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 9781592445172.
• McGrath, Alister E. (2011). Christian Theology: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444397703.
• Morgan, Robert (2002). "Jesus". In Barton, John (ed.). The Biblical World. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415350914.
• Müller, Mogens (2016). "Acts as biblical rewriting of the gospels and Paul's letters". In Müller, Mogens; Nielsen, Jesper Tang (eds.). Luke's Literary Creativity. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567665836.
• Novakovic, Lidija (2014). Raised from the Dead According to Scripture. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567480859.
• Parker, D.C. (1997). The Living Text of the Gospels. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521599511.
• Pate, C. Marvin (2013). Apostle of the Last Days: The Life, Letters and Theology of Paul. Kregel Academic. ISBN 9780825438929.
• Perkins, Pheme (2014). "Resurrection of Jesus". In Evans, Craig A. (ed.). The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus. Routledge. ISBN 9781317722243.
• Perkins, Pheme (1998). "The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles". In Barton, John (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521485937.
• Plevnik, Joseph (2009). What are They Saying about Paul and the End Time?. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809145782.
• Porter, Stanley E. (2015). John, His Gospel, and Jesus: In Pursuit of the Johannine Voice. Eerdmans. ISBN 9781467444057.
• Powell, Mark Allan (1998). Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664257033.
• Quast, Kevin (1991). Reading the Gospel of John: An Introduction. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809132973.
• Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. ISBN 9781134403165.
• Schams, Christine (1998). Jewish Scribes in the Second-Temple Period. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567299017.
• Seim, Turid Karlsen; Økland, Jorunn (2009). Metamorphoses: Resurrection, Body and Transformative Practices in Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110202991.
• Smith, Stephen H. (2016). A Sense of Presence: The Resurrection of Jesus in Context. Troubadour. ISBN 9781785892417.
• Stuhlmacher, Peter (2005). "Jesus' readiness to suffer and his understanding of his death". In Dunn, James D. G.; McKnight, Scot (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Recent Research. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061009.
• Sullivan, Kevin (2006). "Sexuality and Gender of Angels". In De Conick, April D. (ed.). Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism. SBL. ISBN 9781589832572.
• Sweat, Laura C. (2013). The Theological Role of Paradox in the Gospel of Mark. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567215703.
• Tabor, James (2013). Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781439123324.
• Taylor, Mark (2014). 1 Corinthians: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture. B&H Publishing. ISBN 9780805401288.
• Teeple, Howard M. (1972). "Historical Beginnings of the Resurrection Faith". In Aune, David E.; Wikgren, Allen Paul (eds.). Studies in New Testament and in Early Christian Literature. BRILL Archive. ISBN 9004035044.
• Telford, W.R. (1999). The Theology of the Gospel of Mark. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439770.
• Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). "Eternal Life". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
• Wedderburn, A.J.M. (2015). "Resurrection". In Minard, Antone (ed.). Jesus in History, Legend, Scripture, and Tradition. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610698047.
• Williams, Catrin H. (2002). "The Identity and Role of Jesus". In Barton, John (ed.). The Biblical World. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415275743.

External links

Category:Christology Category:Resurrection Category:Glorious Mysteries Category:1st century in Jerusalem