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Interspecies Friendship (Draft Article Plan)

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Adding information on:

  • Reasoning for interspecies friendship formation (evolution, mutualism, social bonding, protection, etc.)
  • Interspecies friendships involving humans with animals other than dogs
    • The existing article only touches on friendship between humans and dogs and does not describe friendships between humans and other animals or non-human animal friendships
  • Interspecies friendships between animals that do not include humans
  • Interspecies communication (how animals communicate with each other is important in forming bonds)
  • The existing article mainly talks about interspecies friendship due to domestication, I want to emphasize and include information on friendships that occur without domestication

Changes in existing article:

  • Will rearrange and edit the existing lead
  • Will move the sentences on domestication in the lead to a separate section on domestication
  • Will move the sentences on mutualism in the lead to a separate section on mutualism
  • Will edit and rearrange sentences that are already existing in the article and change organization

Interspecies friendship

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An interspecies friendship is a non-sexual bond that is formed between animals of different species. [1] Numerous cases of interspecies friendships among wild and domesticated animals have been reported and documented with photography and video. [1] Domestication of animals has led to unusual interspecies friendships between two (or more) species that would naturally never exist together otherwise. [2] In many cases of interspecies friendship, the pair of animals include those not known to get along, and sometimes, one is of a species that ordinarily preys upon the other in nature. [3]

The concept of interspecies friendship is similar to that of mutualism (biology) in which two individuals from different species exist in a relationship where each organism benefits from the activity of the other. [4] Reasons for the formation of interspecies friendships include domestication, interspecies communication, mutually beneficial exchanges, desire for social bonding, protection, or it is often unknown. [3][5][6]

Friendships between humans and other animals

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Canis familiaris (complete by other editors)

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Already completed by other editors

Felis catus

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Friendships between household cats (Felis catus) and humans is also very common and in many countries, cats are the most popular choice of pet. [7][8] Cat owners often consider their cat as an integrated part of their family and indicate that they are easy to care for and engage in social behaviours such as allowing humans to hold, pet and play with them. [7][8] Mutual affection and bonding is displayed between cats and their owners, indicating a sense of friendship. [8]

E. ferus

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Friendships between humans and domesticated horses (E. ferus) are often observed and occur when the horse is willing to allow the person into their flight distance and personal space through friendly interactions such as grooming, scratching and rubbing.[9] Horses are social animals and once a person is accepted into their personal space, they become a part of their social system.[9] A domesticated horse will work hard for praise from their human partner and can be easily trained to respond to human commands.[9] Many people report strong feelings of friendship with their horses and acknowledge that their horse considers them to be their friend, protector, and caretaker.[10]

Non-domesticated animals

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Interspecies friendships have been displayed between humans and non-domesticated animals. Some examples include:

  • The interspecies friendship between zoologist Dian Fossey and a group of gorillas.[11] Fossey developed relationships with the gorillas she studied and after years of being away from them, they recognized and remembered her when she returned. After their reunion, the unusual friends engaged in amicable behaviours such as direct eye contact, sniffing, crooning, resting beside each other and embracing one another.[11]
  • The relationship between Barbara Smuts and a baboon troop.[12] Over the course of many interactions between Smuts and the baboons, eventually the baboons treated her as if she was a part of their troop. Smuts would comfortably rest with them, exchange friendly glances and felt safe amongst them.[12]
  • Friendly encounters have been observed between gray whales and humans.[13] Gray whales seem to enjoy when humans pat them alongside boats. During these human-whale interactions, the whales are generally timid and gentle.[13]

Friendships between non-human animals

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Dogs and cats

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A cat and dog bonding

Dogs (Canis familaris) and cats (Felis catus) that coexist in close quarters are two unrelated species that often display companionship towards each other. [1][14] Many coexisting dogs and cats exhibit friendly relationships involving behaviours such as playing and sleeping together, grooming each other and understanding differences in body language and communication.[14] Dogs and cats often engage in mutual nose sniffing which is a form of greeting displayed in cats that is not normally observed in dogs. Dogs may acquire this behaviour from the understanding of cat communication signals. [14]

Other examples

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There are many documented instances of unusual interspecies friendships. Some examples include:

  • Three large shore birds including a Long-billed curlew, Whimbrel and Marbled godwit kept each other company every Winter in Vancouver for many years. [15]
  • Near Cincinnati, three Northern cardinal and four Robin nestlings shared a nest and the parents of the nestlings worked together to bring food to their offspring. [16]
  • A horse and wild turkey displayed amicable behaviour in which the horse would bow down his head and allow the turkey to climb on his back. [17]
  • A ram and blind cow exhibited interspecies friendship in which the ram would protect the cow by making sure she did not bump into anything and feeding beside her every day. [18] When the cow gave birth to a calf, the ram exhibited these protective behaviours on the calf as well. [18]
  • A steer and a blind mule formed an interspecies friendship in the Black Forest Animal Sanctuary. [6] When the species were introduced, the steer automatically assumed a protective role over the blind mule by staying near her, sleeping next to her, playing with her and leading her around the pasture to protect her from injuries. [6]
  • Coyotes are often known to hunt badgers, however, mutualistic relationships can develop between these rival species. [3] Coyotes and badgers engage in ground squirrel hunting together in which the badgers dig into ground squirrel nests and hunt any they come across. Ground squirrels that manage to flee the site are captured by coyotes near by. This hunting behaviour benefits both the coyotes and badgers because it allows each species to obtain food. The coyotes initiate ground squirrel hunting through friendly behaviours such as play-bowing, tail-wagging and scampering. [3] The badgers respond to this behaviour even though they are not known to initiate these behaviours with other badgers. After the hunt, the animals often rest together with their bodies in close proximity or touching. [3]
  • A Timber wolf and two goats were kept in enclosures next to each other in the San Diego Zoo and engaged in a playful relationship which involved racing each other back and forth by the fence separating them. [17] They would also rest next to each other by the fence and the wolf would try to lick the goats' faces. They would be let outside the same time each day so that they could play together and the wolf would only go inside at night if the goats were already inside. [17]

Why interspecies friendships form

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Domestication (majority of section complete by other editors)

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Domestication is defined as a multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from the second group.[2] In the previous 11,000 years, humans have brought a wide range of species into domestication to use as livestock, working animals, household pets, and companions. [19] The influence of human behaviour on domesticated animals has led to many species having learned to co-exist - sometimes leading to the formation of an interspecies friendship. For example, interspecies friendships are often observed in humans with their domesticated pets and in pets that live in the same household such as cats and dogs.[1][14]

Interspecies communication

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Interspecies communication can form the basis of an interspecies friendship because it facilitates mutualism and bonds between animals. [20] Species can communicate to each other both verbally and non-verbally as seen in human-dog communication. [5] The communication exhibited between dogs and humans allow friendships to form which is often displayed through social bonding activities such as play. [5] Interspecific communication is an effective way of forming mutuality and interspecies friendships in the wild which often involves different species warning each other about potential danger approaching.[21] Species of monkeys have been observed to communicate with each other through their alarm calls leading to mutuality between the counterparts. [22] In particular, West African Diana monkeys and Campbell's monkeys seem to understand and react to the alarm calls of the other species and form associations with each other through mutual protection. [22]

Mutualism

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Mutualism can contribute to the formation of interspecies friendships because it involves a pair of organisms experiencing mutually beneficial exchanges with each other which may lead to a long-lasting bond. [4] The mutualistic relationship observed between coyotes and badgers after hunting ground squirrels together is an example of mutualism developing into an unlikely interspecies friendship. [3] Interspecies friendships often form between humans and domesticated animals through mutualism in which the human gains something beneficial from their pet and the pet gains something beneficial from the human.[19] This is often observed in human-canine friendships in which dogs benefit by being cared for and offered love and companionship from humans while humans benefit by receiving companionship, loyalty and love from their dogs. [23]

Protection

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Protective behaviour exhibited from one species onto another can lead to an interspecies friendship as it allows the formation of a bond to occur between species. [6] This is often observed in interspecies adoptions in which one species "adopts" another that is orphaned or hurt. [24] For example, an infant marmoset was adopted by capuchin monkeys and the marmoset became socially included and protected in their group. [24] Other examples include a ram protecting a blind cow and a steer protecting a blind mule. [6][18] In each circumstance, interspecies friendships are formed after the protectors assumed protective roles.

Social Bonding

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Many species seek out social bonding with other species which often involves play behaviours. [5] Play can act as a form of communication between companions in which the participants mutually understand that the interaction is playful and pleasurable. [5] Play is specifically fundamental to interactions between humans and their non-human companions such as play exhibited in human-canine bonding. [5] Human-canine play requires that both the human and dog communicate to understand the situation and goal of the game through their actions. Social bonding is observed in many interspecies interactions such as those between humans and their household pets, humans and primates, and many animals in the wild.[3] [11] [12] [17] Since social bonding involves communication and interactions between different species, it can lead to the development of interspecies friendships.

Trait selection and convergent evolution (complete by other editors)

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  1. ^ a b c d Innis., Dagg, Anne (2011). Animal friendships. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107005426. OCLC 768168148.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b "Domestication", Wikipedia, 2018-10-07, retrieved 2018-10-29
  3. ^ a b c d e f g F., Lott, Dale (2003). American bison : a natural history. University of California Press. ISBN 0520240626. OCLC 488884487.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b "Mutualism (biology)", Wikipedia, 2018-10-24, retrieved 2018-10-29
  5. ^ a b c d e f Sanders, Clinton R. (2003-08). "Actions Speak Louder than Words: Close Relationships between Humans and Nonhuman Animals". Symbolic Interaction. 26 (3): 405–426. doi:10.1525/si.2003.26.3.405. ISSN 0195-6086. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e Marc., Bekoff, (2008). The emotional lives of animals : a leading scientist explores animal joy, sorrow, and empathy - and why they matter. New World Library. ISBN 9781577316299. OCLC 214308927.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ a b Rochlitz, Irene (2007-04-17). The Welfare of Cats. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781402032271.
  8. ^ a b c Pongrácz, Péter; Szapu, Julianna Szulamit (2018-10). "The socio-cognitive relationship between cats and humans – Companion cats (Felis catus) as their owners see them". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 207: 57–66. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2018.07.004. ISSN 0168-1591. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ a b c Rees, Lucy (1997). The Horses Mind. London: Ebury Press.
  10. ^ Keaveney, Susan M. (2008-05). "Equines and their human companions". Journal of Business Research. 61 (5): 444–454. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.07.017. ISSN 0148-2963. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ a b c Paterson, J. D. (1990-04-01). "Woman in the Mists: The Story of Dian Fossey and the Mountain Gorillas of Africa. By Farley Mowat. New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1987. xiv + 3380 pp. Published in Canada under the title Virunga: The Passion of Dian Fossey. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart Publishers, 1987. Illustrations, maps, index. $19.95". Forest & Conservation History. 34 (2): 97–98. doi:10.2307/3983872. ISSN 1046-7009.
  12. ^ a b c Smuts, Barbara (2001). "Encounters with Animal Minds". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 8 (5–7): 5–7.
  13. ^ a b Dahlheim, Marilyn E.; Fisher, H. Dean; Schempp, James D. (1984), "Sound Production by the Gray Whale and Ambient Noise Levels in Laguna San Ignacio, Baja California Sur, Mexico", The Gray Whale: Eschrichtius Robustus, Elsevier, pp. 511–541, ISBN 9780080923727, retrieved 2018-10-29
  14. ^ a b c d Feuerstein, N.; Terkel, Joseph (2008-09). "Interrelationships of dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus L.) living under the same roof". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 113 (1–3): 150–165. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2007.10.010. ISSN 0168-1591. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Whelan, P (1997, Jan 18). "Chilly northern birders just keep on counting". Globe and Mail (Toronto). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ "Broadminded Robins". Globe and Mail (Toronto). 2002, March 21. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ a b c d Eugene., Linden, (2001). The parrot's lament and other true tales of animal intrigue, intelligence, and ingenuity. Library of Congress, NLS/BPH. ISBN 0525944761. OCLC 1012161998.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b c 1941-, Masson, J. Moussaieff (Jeffrey Moussaieff), (p2003), The pig who sang to the moon the emotional world of farm animals, BBC Audiobooks America, ISBN 0792730488, OCLC 1059163663, retrieved 2018-10-28 {{citation}}: |last= has numeric name (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ a b Zeder, Melinda A., "Pathways to Animal Domestication", Biodiversity in Agriculture, Cambridge University Press, pp. 227–259, ISBN 9781139019514, retrieved 2018-10-29
  20. ^ Marie., Kostan, Karen (2010). Mutualistic interspecific communication : development and maintenance in hobby sheep herding. OCLC 708493090.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Krams, I. (2010), "Interspecific Communication", Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, Elsevier, pp. 196–202, ISBN 9780080453378, retrieved 2018-11-17
  22. ^ a b Zuberbuhler, K. (2000-04-07). "Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 267 (1444): 713–718. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1061. ISSN 0962-8452.
  23. ^ Rehn, Therese; Keeling, Linda J. (2016-10). "Measuring dog-owner relationships: Crossing boundaries between animal behaviour and human psychology". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 183: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2016.07.003. ISSN 0168-1591. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ a b Izar, Patrícia; Verderane, Michele P.; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Ottoni, Eduardo B.; Gomes De Oliveira, Marino; Shirley, Jeanne; Fragaszy, Dorothy (2006). "Cross-genus adoption of a marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) by wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus): case report". American Journal of Primatology. 68 (7): 692–700. doi:10.1002/ajp.20259. ISSN 0275-2565.

Peer Review (by walshanna)

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There is a lot of content here - which is great! But it is a little difficult to decipher what you contributed vs. what you copied from the page.

The section about human and other species relationships was very interesting.

Lots of reliable references.

Could possibly use a reference or multiple references for for "Interspecies friendships occur in a large variety of animal species including mammals, birds, reptiles, and combinations of these. In many cases, the pair of animals include those not known to get along, and sometimes, one is of a species that ordinarily preys upon the other in nature."

Could expand a little more on inter-species communication and give more examples.

Great draft!

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