The bridges and tunnels across the Yangtze River carry rail and road traffic across China's longest and largest river and form a vital part of the country's transportation infrastructure. The river bisects China proper from west to east, and every major north–south bound highway and railway must cross the Yangtze. Large urban centers along the river such as Chongqing, Wuhan, and Nanjing also have urban mass transit rail lines crossing the Yangtze.
Pontoon bridges have been used by militaries for two thousand years on the Yangtze, but until the completion of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge in 1957, there were no permanent bridges along the main stretch of the river known as Chang Jiang (the "Long River"), from Yibin to the river mouth in Shanghai, a distance of 2,884 km (1,792 mi). Since then, over 75 bridges and six tunnels have been built over this stretch, the overwhelming majority since 1990. They reflect a broad array of bridge designs and, in many cases, represent significant achievements in modern bridge engineering. Several rank among the world's longest suspension, cable-stayed, arch bridges, truss and box girder bridges as well as some of the highest and tallest bridges.
Upriver from Yibin, bridge spans are more common along the Jinsha and Tongtian sections where the Yangtze is much narrower, although numerous new bridges are being added. The oldest bridge still in use is the Jinlong, a simple suspension bridge over the Jinsha section of the river in Lijiang, Yunnan that was originally built in 1880 and rebuilt in the 1936.[1]
Section names of the Yangtze
edit
Due to changes in the designation of the source of the Yangtze, various sections of the river have been thought of as distinct rivers with different names. The bridges and tunnels of the Yangtze have compound names consisting of the location name and the river section name. Today, the river has four sectional names in (in Chinese) : (1) Tuotuo, (2) Tongtian, (3) Jinsha and (4) Chang Jiang.
- The Tuotuo River, considered the official headstream of the Yangtze, flows 358 km (222 mi) from the glaciers of the Gelaindong massif in the Tanggula Mountains of southwestern Qinghai to the confluence with the Dangqu River to form the Tongtian River.
- The Tongtian continues for 813 km (505 mi) to the confluence with the Batang River at Yushu in south central Qinghai.
- The Jinsha or Gold Sands River continues for 2,308 km (1,434 mi) along the border of western Sichuan with Qinghai, Tibet, and Yunnan, through northern Yunnan and southern Sichuan to the confluence with the Min River at Yibin in south central Sichuan.
- Chang Jiang or the "Long River" refers to the final 2,884 km (1,792 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin through southeastern Sichuan, Chongqing, western Hubei, northern Hunan, eastern Hubei, northern Jiangxi, Anhui and Jiangsu to the river's mouth in Shanghai. Chang Jiang is generally substituted by "Yangtze" in English usage.
For example, the Nanjing Chang Jiang Bridge is translated as the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge. The Taku Jinsha River Bridge is a bridge along the Jinsha section of the Yangtze.
History
editThe Yangtze River forms a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. For millennia, travelers crossed the Yangtze by ferry. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou, and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train.
Bridges in antiquity
editPontoon bridges
edit
The earliest recorded pontoon bridge over the Yangtze was the Jiangguan Pontoon Bridge built in AD 35 by Gongsun Shu, the ruler of Sichuan, in the war with the Han Emperor Liu Xiu.[2][3] Gongsun Shu built the pontoon across a narrow part of the river between Jingmen and Yichang in (modern Hubei Province) to block the Han Emperor's navy from sailing upriver into Sichuan.[3] The pontoon was burned in battle and Liu Xiu went on to capture Sichuan.[3]
In 570, the Northern Zhou general Chen Teng built a crude suspension bridge across the Xiling Gorge using thick rope and reeds to carry food and provisions for his troops on the south bank. The bridge was cut apart by boats lined with sharp knives sent down river by the Chen general Zhang Shaoda.[4]
During the Tang dynasty, a pontoon bridge was built in Sangouzhen in the Qutang Gorge in 619.[2][4]
In 974, during the Song Emperor Zhao Kuangyin's conquest of the Southern Tang, a pontoon over 1,000 meters long linked together by bamboo chains was erected in just three days at Caishiji (Ma'anshan, Anhui Province) and enabled the Song Army to advance swiftly across the river and capture Nanjing, the Southern Tang capital.[2][3]
The Taiping rebels made extensive use of pontoons on the Yangtze in their campaign against the Qing dynasty in the Yangtze Basin.[3] On 30 December 1852, they built two pontoons nearly 3,000 meters long in a fortnight's time at Baishazhou and Yingwuzhou in Wuhan to move troops from Hanyang on the north bank to the Wuchang on the south bank.[3] The Taipings tied together small boats into twos and threes and steered these preassembled pieces simultaneously into the river, and used iron anchors to set the pontoons instead of chains. They added leather-covered walls to the bridges and added towers and firing positions.[3]
Pontoon bridges have not been a feasible long-term solution to cross river transport because they block boat traffic on the Yangtze, a major conduit for travelers and cargo between the coast and the Chinese interior.
Iron chain bridges
edit
Dating back to 3rd century, militaries of antiquity have stretched iron chains across the Yangtze in the Three Gorges to block invading armies. Notable examples include the iron chain defense of the Wu Kingdom in the Xiling Gorge against the Jin dynasty in 280, the Former Shu's chain across Kuimen in the Qutang Gorge against the Jingnan in 925, and Song general Xu Zongwu's seven-link chain at the same location against the Mongols in 1264.[4]
The first documented iron chain bridge across the river was built in the 7th century by the Tibetan Empire over the Jinsha. The Shenchuan Iron Bridge, a simple suspension bridge, stood at what is today Tacun of Weixi Lisu Autonomous County in the Dêqên Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of northwestern Yunnan Province, and was probably built to help the Tibetan military advance against the Kingdom of Nanzhao during its invasions between 682 and 704.[6] The Tibetans stationed a frontier command office in the town called the Shenchuan Iron Bridge jiedushi.[6] The bridge facilitated trade between the two countries until 794 when the Nanzhao realigned with the Tang dynasty and destroyed the bridge in a war with the Tibetan Empire.[6][7]
The oldest bridge still in use on the Yangtze is the Jinlong Bridge in Lijiang, a simple iron chain suspension bridge first built during the Qing dynasty from 1876 to 1880.[8] It was destroyed in a flood in 1935 and rebuilt the following year.[8] The bridge was named a National Historical Site in 2006.[8]
Iron chain bridges are more durable than pontoon bridges and allow for year-round use, although when the river level is high during the flood season, boards on the bridge deck must be removed.[9]
Modern bridges
editChang Jiang
edit
The first permanent bridge to cross the Chang Jiang section of the river was the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, built from 1955 to 1957. The dual-use road-rail bridge was a major infrastructural project in the early years of the People's Republic and was completed with Soviet assistance. The second bridge was a single-track railway bridge built in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, also a road-rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze. It was built from 1960 to 1968, after the Sino-Soviet split, and did not receive foreign assistance. The Zhicheng Road-Rail Bridge followed in 1971.
Only two bridges opened in the 1980s, the Chongqing's First Shibanpo Bridge in 1980 and the Luzhou Road Bridge in 1982. Both were in the upper reaches of Changjiang in Sichuan Province, to which Chongqing Municipality belonged at the time.
Bridge-building resumed in the 1990s and accelerated in the first decade of the 21st century due to the rapid growth of the Chinese economy. Jiangxi Province had its first bridge in 1993 with the opening of the Jiujiang Bridge. The first bridge in Anhui Province, the Tongling Bridge, opened in 1995. Six of the 11 bridges built in the 1990s and half of the 40 bridge crossings added in the 2000s were built in Chongqing Municipality, which became a directly controlled municipality in 1997 to facilitate the construction of the Three Gorges and experienced a building boom.
By 2005, there were over 50 bridges across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The first tunnel under the Yangtze opened in Wuhan in 2008.
As of December 2014, urban Chongqing has 18 bridges, Wuhan has nine[10] bridges and three tunnels, and Nanjing has five bridges and two tunnels. About a dozen other bridges are now under construction.
In December 2020 a new bridge is planned to be opened, the Wufengshan Yangtze River Bridge with 4 + 4 highway lanes on the upper deck and 4 railway tracks in the lower deck.[11]
Upstream sections
edit
In the upper reaches of the Yangtze above Yibin, the Jinsha (Gold Sands), Tongtian, and Tuotuo sections of the river are narrower and bridges are more numerous. As of December 2014, Yibin had 10 bridges across the Jinsha and Panzhihua had 16.
The Taku Jinsha River Bridge, under construction in Lijiang, is set to become the highest bridge in the world with a bridge deck that is 512 m (1,680 ft) above the surface of the river.[12]
Bridge strain
edit
With the advent of economic growth around the country and widespread use of heavy freight trucks, bridges along the Yangtze have been bearing greater load, leading to greater strain on older bridge structures. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was originally designed to carry trucks weighing up to 30 t (33 short tons).[13] In 2008, the tonnage limit was raised to 55 t (61 short tons).[13] In November 2011, a crack was discovered in the bridge's steel structure and forced the authorities to close the bridge to freight traffic.[14] In February 2012, the tonnage limit was lowered to 20 t (22 short tons).[13] Truck traffic had to be re-routed to neighboring provinces. In 2012, a crack was discovered in one girder of the Luzhou Yangtze River Bridge, leading to bridge closure and emergency repairs.[15]
Longest and tallest bridges
editBridges over the Yangtze including some of the longest and tallest bridges in the world.
- The Runyang Bridge [2005] (1,490 m (4,890 ft)), Fourth Nanjing Bridge [2012] (1,418 m (4,652 ft)) and Jiangyin Bridge [1999] (1,385 m (4,544 ft)) are all among the ten longest suspension bridges in the world.
- The Husutong Bridge [2020] (1,092 m (3,583 ft)), Sutong Bridge [2008] (1,088 m (3,570 ft)), Edong Bridge [2010] (926 m (3,038 ft)), Jiujiang Expressway Bridge [2013] (818 m (2,684 ft)) and Jingyue Bridge [2010] (816 m (2,677 ft)) all have cable-stayed bridge spans that rank among the top ten in the world.
- The Chaotianmen Bridge [2009] (552 m (1,811 ft)) is the longest arch bridge in the world. The Wushan Bridge [2005] (460 m (1,510 ft)) also ranks in the top ten.
- The Dashengguan Bridge [2010] and Jiujiang Bridge [1992] rank among the longest continuous truss bridges by total truss length.
- The Sutong, Jingyue, Zhongzhou [2009], and Jiujiang Expressway Bridges rank among the ten tallest in the world.
- Chongqing's Second Shibanpo Bridge [2006] set a world record for box girder bridges with a longest span of 330 m (1,080 ft).[16]
- The Yangsigang Bridge [2019] has a main span of 1,700 metres (5,600 feet). It is the second longest suspension bridge in the world and the longest with a double-deck configuration.[17]
Longest span timeline
edit| Year | Bridge | City | Province | Longest span | Type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1957 | First Wuhan Bridge | Wuhan | Hubei | 128 m (420 ft) | truss |
| 1968 | First Nanjing Bridge | Nanjing | Jiangsu | 160 m (520 ft) | truss |
| 1971 | Zhicheng Bridge | Zhicheng | Hubei | 160 m (520 ft) | truss |
| 1980 | First Shibanpo Bridge | Chongqing | Sichuan | 174 m (571 ft) | beam |
| 1993 | Jiujiang Bridge | Jiujiang | Jiangxi | 216 m (709 ft) | truss & arch |
| 1995 | Lijiatuo Bridge | Jiulongpo District Nan'an District |
Chongqing | 444 m (1,457 ft) | cable-stayed |
| 1996 | Xiling Bridge | Yichang | Hubei | 900 m (3,000 ft) | suspension |
| 1999 | Jiangyin Bridge | Jingjiang, Jiangyin | Jiangsu | 1,385 m (4,544 ft) | suspension |
| 2005 | Runyang South Bridge | Shiye Island, Zhenjiang | Jiangsu | 1,490 m (4,890 ft) | suspension |
| 2019 | Yangsigang Bridge | Wuhan | Hubei | 1,700 m (5,600 ft) | suspension |
List of existing bridges and tunnels
editChang Jiang
edit
Jinsha
edit
Tongtian
editTuotuo
edit| Name | Image | Location | Province | Opened | Total length | Longest Span | Type | Carries | Coordinates |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| G109 Tuotuo River Bridge109国道沱沱河大桥 |  |
Tanggula Town (Golmud) |
Qinghai (Haixi) |
1958 [note 9] |
beam |  G109 |
34°13′09″N 92°26′37″E / 34.2193°N 92.4435°E | ||
| Qinghai-Tibet Railway Tuotuo River Bridge青藏铁路长江源特大桥 | 2006 [note 10] |
1,389.6 m (4,559 ft) | beam | Qinghai–Tibet Railway | 34°13′19″N 92°26′09″E / 34.222°N 92.4358°E |
Bridges and tunnels under construction
editChang Jiang
edit| Name | Location | Expected opening | Total length | Longest span | Type | Carries | Coord. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Longtan Yangtze River Bridge
龙潭长江大桥 |
Yizheng & Nanjing, Jiangsu | 2024 | 5,715 m (18,750 ft) | 1,560 m (5,120 ft) | suspension |  G9904
|
|
| Nanjing Xinshengwei Yangtze River Bridge
南京新生圩长江大桥 |
Nanjing, Jiangsu | 2023 | 2,920 m (9,580 ft) | 1,760 m (5,770 ft) | suspension | road | |
| Nanjing Yanziji Yangtze River Tunnel[32]
南京燕子矶长江隧道 |
2022 | 3,845 m (12,615 ft) | - | tunnel | 6-lane road | ||
| Shangyuanmen tunnel
上元门过江通道 |
2027 | 14,000 m (46,000 ft) | - | tunnel | Huning ICR, Yangtze River corridor, etc. | ||
| Gongan Bridge 公安长江大桥 |
Jingzhou, Hubei | 2018 | 2,015.9 m (6,614 ft) | 518 m (1,699 ft) | cable-stayed | Shashi-Gongan Hwy Jingzhou-Yueyang Railroad |
30°04′06″N 112°19′59″E / 30.068333°N 112.333056°E, |
| Huangjuetuo Yangtze River Bridge 黄桷沱长江大桥[33] |
Jiangbei & Nan'an, Chongqing | 2027 | 1,260 m (4,130 ft) | 765 m (2,510 ft) | suspension | road and |
Upstream sections
edit| Name | Location | Expected opening | Total length | Main span | Type | Carries | Coord. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 New Hulukou Bridge 新葫芦口大桥 |
Liangshan, Sichuan Zhaotong, Yunnan |
2016[34] | 959 m (3,146 ft) | 656 m (2,152 ft) | suspension | road | 26°58′17″N 102°53′30″E / 26.9714°N 102.8918°E |
| Jindong Bridge 金东大桥 |
Liangshan, Sichuan Kunming, Yunnan |
2016[35] | 941 m (3,087 ft) | 730 m (2,400 ft) | suspension | road | 26°30′36″N 103°02′26″E / 26.5099°N 103.0406°E |
| Hemenkou Bridge 河门口大桥 |
Liangshan, Sichuan Kunming, Yunnan |
2017 | 522 m (1,713 ft) | 240 m (790 ft) | rigid frame | road | 26°18′27″N 102°38′04″E / 26.3074°N 102.6344°E |
 Second Chengkun Railway Bridge 成昆二线金沙江大桥 |
Panzhihua, Sichuan | 2020 | cable-stayed | Second Chengkun Railway | 26°36′13″N 101°48′50″E / 26.6037°N 101.8139°E | ||
| G214 New Tongtian River Bridge 214国道新通天河大桥 |
Yushu, Qinghai | ? | ~800 m (2,600 ft) | rigid frame | road | 33°00′20″N 97°14′56″E / 33.0055°N 97.249°E |
Planned bridges
edit| Name | Location | Expected opening | Total length | Main span | Type | Carries | Coord. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wuxue Bridge | Wuxue, Hubei & Yangxin, Hubei | 2018 | 4,331 m (14,209 ft) | 1,328 m (4,357 ft)[36] | cable-stayed | Macheng-Yangxin Hwy | 29°50′25″N 115°30′22″E / 29.840278°N 115.506111°E |
| Chibi Bridge | Honghu & Chibi, Hubei | 2018 | 4,557 m (14,951 ft) | 720 m (2,360 ft) | cable-stayed | S214 | 29°51′09″N 113°34′42″E / 29.8525°N 113.578333°E |
Abandoned
edit| Name | Location | opened | closed | Total length | Main span | Type | Carries | Coord. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Dadukou District and Jiangjin District, Chongqing | 1959 | 2019 | 820 m (2,690 ft) | 4*80 m (260 ft) | cable-stayed | Chuanqian Railway [note 11] |
29°21′13″N 106°25′31″E / 29.353714°N 106.425267°E |
 Hulukou Bridge葫芦口大桥 |
Ningnan County, Sichuan and Qiaojia County, Yunnan | 1998 | 2021 | 160 m (520 ft) | unknown | arch |  S212 S310 S303
|
26°57′52″N 102°53′24″E / 26.9644°N 102.89°E |
 Midi Bridge密地大桥 |
Panzhihua, Sichuan | 1969 | 2014 [note 12] |
284 m (932 ft) | 181 m (594 ft) | arch | 26°34′33″N 101°44′57″E / 26.5759°N 101.7492°E |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ a b c Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel, connecting Pudong on the south bank of the river and Changxing Island, the Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge between Changxing and Chongming Island, and the Chongming–Qidong Yangtze River Bridge linking Chongming with Qidong on the north bank of the river, collectively form one crossing near the river's mouth.
- ^ The Taizhou Bridge complex crosses two branch streams of the Yangtze and the Yangzhong island in the middle of the river. The bridge over the left stream is a suspension bridge with three towers and two spans. The bridge over the right stream is a pair of box-girder bridges configured as 85+125x3+85 = 545 m (1,788 ft) and 85+125x2+85=420 m (1,380 ft)
- ^ Runyang Bridge complex crosses the Yangtze via Shiye Island and consists of two main bridges. The Runyang North Bridge is a suspension bridge over the north branch stream between the island and Yangzhou. The Runyang South Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge over the south branch stream between the island and Zhenjiang.
- ^ The Ma'anshan Bridge complex crosses two branch streams of the Yangtze and the Xiaohuangzhou island in the middle of the river. The bridge over the left stream is a suspension bridge with three towers and two spans. The bridge over the right stream is a cable-stayed bridge with three towers and two spans.
- ^ The upstream span of the New Midi Bridge opened in 2011 and the downstream span opened in 2013
- ^ The Jinlong Bridge was first built in 1880. It was destroyed in a flood in 1935 and rebuilt in 1936.
- ^ The Old Zhubalong Bridge has been closed to vehicular traffic.
- ^ The Qumarlêb Tongtian River Bridge, a rigid frame bridge that built in 2012, replaced a beam bridge built in 1989.
- ^ The G109 Tuotuo River Bridge, first built in 1958, was rebuilt in 1987 and 2002.
- ^ The Qinghai-Tibet Railway Tuotuo River Bridge was completed in 2002 and opened to rail traffic in 2006.
- ^ The second track on the Baishatuo Yangtze River Railway Bridge was added in 1978.
- ^ The Midi Bridge closed in 2014.
References
edit- ^ (in Chinese) 大理蒋公祠 Archived 7 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine 12 March 2014
- ^ a b c (in Chinese) 长江上的大桥 Xinhua 22 July 2009
- ^ a b c d e f g (in Chinese) "浮桥" 《古代经济专题史话》
- ^ a b c (in Chinese) 古代的索桥浮桥 《重庆晚报评论》 18 February 2013
- ^ (in Chinese) 石鼓铁虹桥 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine 11 December 2014
- ^ a b c (in Chinese) 冯智, 吐蕃南诏神州铁桥, 西藏研究 Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine 14 June 1992
- ^ (in Chinese) 茶马古道：征服世界屋脊的文化之脉 1 December 2014
- ^ a b c (in Chinese) 杨陆, 丽江境跨江桥梁的三项"之最" 12 February 2011
- ^ (in Chinese) 金沙江铁索桥古迹已被江水淹没(图) 6 September 2007
- ^ Changjiang Weekly 2018.01.05 pp.6. Zhuankou Yangtze River Bridge Opens to traffic "The Zhuankou River Bridge, now the ninth bridge across the Yangtze in Wuhan, opened to traffic..."
- ^ "Wufengshan Yangtze River Bridge fills the gap in the world". Retrieved 13 December 2020.
- ^ (in Chinese) 华坪至丽江高速公路建设动员进场 Archived 18 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine 30 October 2013
- ^ a b c (in Chinese) 江西九江长江大桥裂缝事件追踪:超限纠错缘何迟来4年[dead link] 16 February 2013
- ^ Key Yangtze River bridge closed for repair
- ^ (in Chinese) 桥墩现裂缝 泸州长江大桥禁行 Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine 21 November 2012
- ^ "Shibanpo Bridge Breaks World Record for Longest Box Girder Bridge Span" American Segmental Bridge Institute Accessed 2 February 2015
- ^ Zhou Lihua; Liu Kun (8 October 2019). "Yangsigang Yangtze River Bridge opens to traffic". China Daily. Archived from the original on 16 November 2019. Page 2 archived from the original. Page 3 archived from the original. Page 4 archived from the original. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
- ^ (in Chinese) 池州长江大桥昨天动工 设计速度100公里/小时 31 December 2014
- ^ (in Chinese) 万利高速公路驸马长江特大桥开工建设 Archived 2 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine 21 June 2013
- ^ "中国已建成的最大跨度路轨两用钢桁梁悬索桥通车". China News. 18 January 2023.
- ^ "寸滩大桥上演最炫"中国风"". news.sina.com.cn. 27 September 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
- ^ (in Chinese) 重庆江津几江长江大桥北岸主塔封顶（图） 27 November 2014
- ^ 第003版. "重庆几江长江大桥通车". paper.people.com.cn. Archived from the original on 31 December 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ (in Chinese) 永川至江津高速通车 半小时跑全程(图) 26 December 2014
- ^ "白沙长江大桥开工建设". Luzhou Daily (in Chinese). 30 July 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
- ^ "沙茜过江通道（城东长江二桥）及连接线工程招标公告". bidcenter.com.cn. 3 November 2016.
- ^ "川南城际铁路自贡至宜宾线有望年内开工建设". 28 November 2017. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017.
- ^ "鱼跃长江 宜宾盐坪坝长江大桥建成通车". 2 July 2021. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022.
- ^ YIBIN YANGTZE River Bridge
- ^ (in Chinese) 绥江云川金沙江特大桥 完成投资1.3亿元 昭通日报 5 January 2015
- ^ a b c d e (in Chinese) 杨陆, "丽江境跨江桥梁的三项'之最'" 云南法制报 12 February 2011
- ^ (in Chinese) 南京纬三路过江隧道年底通车 新华日报 16 January 2015
- ^ "渝长高速复线连接道工程（海腾立交—南桥头立交）施工". 15 November 2021.
- ^ "CHINA RAILWAY BAOJI BRIDGE GROUP CO., LTD-News-Hulukou Bridge at Baihetan Hydropower Station is Successfully Closed". Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
- ^ "Site Suspended – This site has stepped out for a bit".
- ^ (in Chinese) 湖北将建武穴长江公路大桥对接瑞昌 项目已通过专家评估 11 October 2014
External links
edit- (in Chinese) China Jiangsu Net Yangtze River Bridges