Lady Justice , often used as a personification of the law, holding a sword in one hand and scales in the other.Law enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes ; by the executive through decrees and regulations ; or established by judges through precedent , usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts , including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution , written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics , economics , history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.
Legal systems vary between jurisdictions , with their differences analysed in comparative law . In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges may make binding case law through precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically, religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities. Sharia law based on Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including Iran and Saudi Arabia .
The scope of law can be divided into two domains: public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law , administrative law , and criminal law ; while private law deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as contracts , property , torts , delicts and commercial law . This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts ; by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions. (Full article...
Carucage land tax enacted by King Richard I in 1194, based on the size—variously calculated—of the taxpayer's estate. It was a replacement for the danegeld , last imposed in 1162, which had become difficult to collect because of an increasing number of exemptions. Carucage was levied just six times: by Richard in 1194 and 1198; by John , his brother and successor, in 1200; and by John's son, Henry III , in 1217, 1220, and 1224, after which it was replaced by taxes on income and personal property .
The taxable value of an estate was initially assessed from the Domesday Survey , but other methods were later employed, such as valuations based on the sworn testimony of neighbours or on the number of plough-teams the taxpayer used. Carucage never raised as much revenue as other taxes, but nevertheless helped to fund several projects. It paid the ransom for Richard's release in 1194 after he was taken prisoner by Leopold V, Duke of Austria ; it covered the tax John had to pay King Philip II of France in 1200 on land he inherited in that country; and it helped to finance Henry III's military campaigns in England and on continental Europe. (Full article...
Lloyd Kenyon, 1st Baron Kenyon, PC British politician and barrister , who served as Attorney General , Master of the Rolls and Lord Chief Justice . Born to a country gentleman, he was initially educated in Hanmer before moving to Ruthin School aged 12. Rather than going to university he instead worked as a clerk to an attorney, joining the Middle Temple in 1750 and being called to the Bar in 1756. Initially almost unemployed due to the lack of education and contacts which a university education would have provided, his business increased thanks to his friendships with John Dunning , who, overwhelmed with cases, allowed Kenyon to work many, and Lord Thurlow who secured for him the Chief Justiceship of Chester in 1780. He was returned as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Hindon the same year, serving repeatedly as Attorney General under William Pitt the Younger . He effectively sacrificed his political career in 1784 to challenge the ballot of Charles James Fox , and was rewarded with a baronetcy; from then on he did not speak in the House of Commons, despite remaining an MP.
On 27 March 1784, he was appointed Master of the Rolls , a job to which he dedicated himself once he ceased to act as an MP. He had previously practised in the Court of Chancery , and although unfamiliar with Roman law was highly efficient; Lord Eldon said "I am mistaken if, after I am gone, the Chancery Records do not prove that if I have decided more than any of my predecessors in the same period of time, Sir Lloyd Kenyon beat us all". On 9 June 1788, Kenyon succeeded Lord Mansfield as Lord Chief Justice , and was granted a barony. Although not rated as highly as his predecessor, his work "restored the simplicity and rigor of the common law". He remained Lord Chief Justice until his death in 1802. (Full article...
A statute legislative body, a stage in the process of legislation . Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy . Statutes are laws made by legislative bodies; they are distinguished from case law or precedent , which is decided by courts , regulations issued by government agencies , and oral or customary law .[better source needed Statutes may originate with the legislative body of a country, state or province, county, or municipality . (Full article...
The Variation of Trusts Act 1958 6 & 7 Eliz. 2 . c. 53) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that governs the courts' ability to vary the terms of trust documents. Prior to the 1950s, the courts were willing to approve "compromise" agreements as to what terms meant, not only when they were disputed but also for the benefit of certain parties, such as minors. In 1954, the House of Lords decided in Chapman v Chapman Settled Land Act 1925 (which could be altered if there was a flaw) and those trusts that were not (which were affected by the Chapman decision). As a result, following a report by the Law Reform Committee , Petre Crowder introduced the Variation of Trusts Bill to Parliament, where it was given royal assent on 23 July 1958, and came into force as the Variation of Trusts Act 1958.
The Act gave the courts near-unlimited discretion to approve "compromise" agreements, for the benefit of infants or other incapable individuals, for individuals who may become beneficiaries, or for unborn beneficiaries. The courts are also able to approve agreements for individuals who may be beneficiaries under protective trusts , with no requirement that the alterations be for their benefit. The courts have interpreted the Act's scope fairly widely, stating that almost any "variation" is acceptable, and that "benefit" may mean not just a financial benefit, but also a social or moral one. Despite initial fears that it would allow tax planners another way to hide funds and create a back-and-forth fight between the Chancery Division and Parliament, the Act was met with general approval. The ability of the courts to alter trustees' investment powers under the Act was criticised as slow and expensive, and as a result this is now covered by the Trustee Investments Act 1961 . (Full article...
... that the non-payment of debts is the archetype for the seventeen other Hindu titles of law ... that Peter Rosted served as chief judge at Norway's Inderøy District Court
Case law common law , is a law that is based on precedents , that is the judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on constitutions , statutes , or regulations . Case law uses the detailed facts of a legal case that have been resolved by courts or similar tribunals . These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis —a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions. (Full article...
Greene v Associated Newspapers Ltd Court of Appeal of England and Wales that governs the use of injunctions against publication in alleged defamation cases. Greene, a businesswoman, sought an injunction against Associated Newspapers Ltd to prevent them publishing alleged links with Peter Foster ; while they claimed to have emails showing links, she asserted that they were false. The test at the time for a preliminary injunction in defamation cases was Bonnard v Perryman Human Rights Act 1998 established that judges should consider whether applicants are "more likely than not" to succeed at trial, a test applied to confidentiality cases in Cream Holdings Ltd v Banerjee and the Liverpool Post and Echo Ltd Cream test should be applied rather than the Bonnard test.
The case first went to the High Court of Justice , where it was heard by Fulford J ; he decided that he did not have the authority to overrule Bonnard , and passed the case on to the Court of Appeal after granting a temporary injunction. In the Court of Appeal, the case was heard by May , Dyson and Brooke LJJ, with Brooke delivering the judgment on 5 November 2004. In it, Brooke judged that defamation, the subject of Greene , was significantly different from breach of confidentiality, the subject in Cream . While the damage from a breach of confidentiality can never be undone, justifying a simple test for issuing injunctions, a defamation case that is won vindicates the injured party. Making it easier to grant injunctions in defamation cases would damage the delicate balance between freedom of the press and the right to privacy; as such, despite the Human Rights Act, Bonnard is still a valid test. (Full article...
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... that police officers had to be flown in by helicopter to seize hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of cannabis plants found growing illegally in Jerrawangala National Park
... that after Joseph S. Bartley legally dead ?
... that Utah state representative Charles Redd
... that the BK inequality Florida Lottery winners, whose involvement in illegal activities was later confirmed by investigations?
... that The Outdoor Circle Wienermobile , believing its presence in the state was illegal?
... that no one laughed at the worst joke in legal history
The following are images from various law-related articles on Wikipedia.
Image 1 Oliver Wendell Holmes was a self-styled legal realist. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 2 Image of pages from the
Decretum of
Burchard of Worms , an 11th-century book of canon law (from
Canon law )
Image 3 King John of England signs the Magna Carta (from
Legal history )
Image 4 Corpus Iuris Civilis , 1607 (from
Judiciary )
Image 5 The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words (from
Legal history )
Image 6 Mill believed law should create happiness. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 8 Lady Justice (Latin:
Justicia ), symbol of the judiciary. Statue at Shelby County Courthouse, Memphis, Tennessee (from
Judiciary )
Image 9 Gratian (from
Judiciary )
Image 10 Thomas Aquinas was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 11 Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 13 Philosophers of law ask "what is law, and what should it be?" (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 14 Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens (from
Jurisprudence )
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Citrin International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine Caroline test International Survivors of Suicide Loss Day Internet and Technology Law Desk Reference Internet hunting Interstate Income Act of 1959 Investigatory Powers Tribunal 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1981 Irish hunger strike Irish nationality law Irving v Penguin Books Ltd Islamic criminal law in Aceh Isle of Man Pure Beer Act Harold Israel Israeli law in the West Bank settlements Iura novit curia Ius civile vigilantibus scriptum est J.S. v. Bethlehem Area School District Howell E. Jackson Roscoe Jackson Jackson v. Indiana Jacoby & Meyers Mahmud Jamal James v. Dravo Contracting Co. Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act, 1978 Priscilla Jana Jane Doe No. 14 v. Internet Brands, Inc. Janowiec and Others v. Russia Jasper Abraham murder case Jencks v. United States Jennifers' Law (Connecticut) Philipp Jenninger Jeon-gwan ye-u John Jeremie Jesinoski v. 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Newman Newspaper Libel and Registration Act 1881 Newspaper theft Demetrius Newton Pania Newton Nguyen v. INS J. C. Nicholson Margaret Nicholson Nik Russian con Nine familial exterminations Ninetieth Minnesota State Senate v. Dayton Nintendo of America, Inc. v. Blockbuster Entertainment Corp. Clotilde Niragira Niz-Chavez v. Garland Nobility privileges in Poland Nobody's Victim Michael Nolan, Baron Nolan Nominated Member of Parliament Non-constituency Member of Parliament Non-combatant casualty value Non-fatal offences against the person in English law Nonintercourse Act North Bloomfield Mining and Gravel Company North Preston's Finest North West Lancashire Health Authority v A, D and G Northern Ireland (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2014 Notarial Archives Novak v. City of Parma Novartis v. Union of India & Others Nuclear Explosions (Prohibition and Inspections) Act 1998 Nuisance in English law Nuisance ordinance O'Connor v. Ortega O'Donnabhain v. Commissioner O'Halloran and Francis v. 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Texas John Watson (advocate) Quintus et Ultimus Watson Watson v British Boxing Board of Control Watts and Betchart murder case Amy Wax Weapon Systems Acquisition Reform Act of 2009 Webster ruling Wednesbury unreasonableness in Singapore law Georges Weill Randi Weingarten Welsh Church (Amendment) Act 1938 Welsh Church (Burial Grounds) Act 1945 Welsh Church (Temporalities) Act 1919 West Indian Incumbered Estates Acts Westmoreland v. CBS Claude Weston Mark Wetjen Wheeler v JJ Saunders Ltd When a man argues against two beautiful ladies like this, they are going to have the last word Alexander White (Virginia politician) Christian Streit White Francis White (Virginia politician) John Baker White (West Virginia politician) John Baker White (clerk of court) Penny J. White Robert White (West Virginia state senator) Robert White (attorney general) Robert White (judge) White v Driver Reah Whitehead Widener University Commonwealth Law School Bambang Widjojanto Wieman v. Updegraff Wiggins v. Smith Wik Peoples v Queensland Elizabeth Wilkins Robert L. Wilkins Wilko v. Swan Will v. Michigan Department of State Police Willamette Law Review Willard v. Tayloe Wills Act 1963 Wine law Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle Wisconsin Department of Revenue v. William Wrigley Jr. Co. Witch hunt Witchcraft Suppression Act, 1957 Witches of Belvoir Witnesses and testimonies of the Armenian genocide Willem Witteveen Andrew Wodrow Wolk v. Kodak Imaging Network, Inc. Women's suffrage in film Walton J. Wood Woodroffe-Hedley v Cuthbertson Bonnie Woods Woodson Law Office Stanley Woodward (attorney) Wool Products Labeling Act Walter Woon 2015 Wootton Bassett rail incident World Courts of Women Wrangell Bombardment Julian M. Wright Writ of mandate (California) Francis Wythens Xiao Yang (judge) YSL Records racketeering trial Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement Yasui v. United States Ye Htoon Year and a day rule Yong Pung How Young v. Facebook, Inc. Zacchini v. 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