User:KYPark/1975

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Werner Abraham

A Linguistic Approach to Metaphor

Peter de Ridder Press, Lisse, Netherlands

• Printed 1961, 1975, 1977. Pages 54.
• Also in: Werner Abraham ed. (1975) The Vale of Tears (Emekhabacha), pp. 17-66.
  http://books.google.com/books?id=PnSeXFkQp0MC

Abstract

An intensionalist position is taken in the discussion of metaphorical use of language. The concept of meaning (refuted by extensionalism as being unclear and hence methodologically unacceptable; compare, for example, Quine 1961, Cohen 1962) is developed by integrating both the meaning postulate approach (Carnap) and the componential analysis approach (which plays a decisive role in the semantic theory introduced by Katz and Fodor 1964 and is most prominently advocated by Katz 1972).

The basic thesis is that among the possible associations (meaning components) that verify the proper use of a lexeme only those are conditions for the normal use of the lexeme that have top priority (are the strongest, or necessary, associations). Metaphors are explained on the basis of a reordering of those components such that associations of low priority in the meaning analysis gain prominence (high priority). In principle, every attempt at metaphorical interpretation presupposes some inferential operation of the traditional sort.

Since there are metaphors of a more universal (etymologically and typologically recurring) sort and those of a highly context-specific kind, pragmatic categories and rules of discourse add to what can be generally called an approach of semantic pragmatics. The senses of lexemes are elicited by interaction with other lexemes syntactically connected, as well as by situative conditions. The phenomenon of the metaphor is thus not distinct from any other lexematic occurrence the sense of which is established by interaction with its context (conversational meaning; cf. Cresswell 1973:239); rather, it is a separate type only insofar as the metaphorizing intention of the speaker is explicit.

• reviewd by John Hutchins, Lingua 38, 1976, 359-362.
  See also: 1975#John Hutchins, 1977#John Hutchins.
• Jerrold Katz, Jerry Fodor

Alan Anderson

Entailment: The Logic of Relevance and Necessity, Vol. I

with Nuel Belnap, Princeton University Press

• Alan Ross Anderson (1925-1973)
• Relevance logic, material implication, strict implication, etc.

Jim Anderson

Neural Models with Cognitive Implications

Technical Report 75-1, The Center for Neural Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, 1975.

• Identical with (1977) "Neural Models with Cognitive Implications," (pp. 27–90), in: D. LaBerge and S. J. Samuels, eds., Basic Processes in Reading Perception and Comprehension, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1977.
• More...: (1977).
• WordNet - Simpli - Google

Many other Andersons

• Alan Ross Anderson, U Pittsburgh (above)
• Richard C. Anderson, UIUC/CSR
• T. H. Anderson, UIUC/CSR
• M. C. Anderson, UIUC/CSR
• John Robert Anderson, CMU, ACT-R, (1976)

See also

• Jay McClleland PDP Handbook [1]
• Relevant bibliography (1) [2]

David Annis

Self-consciousness and the Right to Life

Southwestern Journal of Philosophy, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 123-128

Richard Bandler

The Structure of Magic

Volume I: A Book about Language and Therapy

Volume II: A Book About Communication and Change

with John Grinder, Science & Behavior Books, Palo Alto, CA

• Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume I (1976) with John Grinder
• Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II (1977) with John Grinder and Judith Delozier
• Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming (1979) with John Grinder
• neuro-linguistic programming, History of NLP, meta model (NLP), Milton model
• Gregory Bateson, Milton Erickson, Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir

Becker

Joseph D. Becker

The phrasal lexicon

Proceedings of the 1975 workshop on Theoretical issues in natural language processing (TINLAP '75), pp. 60-63. ACM

Abstract

Theoretical linguists have in recent years concentrated their attention on the productive aspect of language, wherein utterances are formed combinatorically from units the size of words or smaller. This paper will focus on the contrary aspect of language, wherein utterances are formed by repetition, modification, and concatenation of previously-known phrases consisting of more than one word. I suspect that we speak mostly by stitching together swatches of text that we have heard before; productive processes have the secondary role of adapting the old phrases to the new situation. The advantage of this point of view is that it has the potential to account for the observed linguistic behavior of native speakers, rather than discounting their actual behavior as irrelevant to their language. In particular, this point of view allows us to concede that most utterances are produced in stereotyped social situations, where the communicative and ritualistic functions of language demand not novelty, but rather an appropriate combination of formulas, cliches, idioms, allusions, slogans, and so forth. Language must have originated in such constrained social contexts, and they are still the predominant arena for language production. Therefore an understanding of the use of phrases is basic to the understanding of language as a whole.You are currently reading a much-abridged version of a paper that will be published elsewhere later.

Beer

Stafford Beer

Platform for Change: A Message from Stafford Beer

Joseph Ben-David

Sociology of Science

Annual Review of Sociology 1: 203-222 (with Teresa Sullivan)

• Cited in scientific imperialism.

Jorge Borges

The Book of Sand

Spanish title: El libro de arena (1975)

English title: The Book of Sand (1977)

• Parallels to The Zahir, continuing the themes of self-reference, harmful sensation and attempting to abandon the terribly infinite.

• The titular "Book of Sand" is the Book of all Books, and is a monster. The story tells how this book came into the possession of a fictional version of Borges himself, and of how he ultimately disposed of it.

• The last note to Borges's short story "The Library of Babel" briefly imagines a similar book, and links it to the work of the well-known mathematician Bonaventura Cavalieri:

  …[T]his vast Library is useless: rigorously speaking, a single volume would be sufficient… containing an infinite number of infinitely thin leaves. (In the early seventeenth century, Cavalieri said that all solid bodies are the superimposition of an infinite number of planes.)

• cf. The Aleph, The Zahir (1949)
• cf. The Library of Babel (1941)
• cf. The Total Library 1939)
• cf. Kurd Lasswitz (1901) "The Universal Library"

William Bynum

The Great Chain of Being after Forty Years: An Appraisal

History of Science, 13: 1-28 [3]

• Cf. Great chain of being

Donald Campbell

On the Conflicts between Biological and Social Evolution and between Psychology and Moral Tradition

American Psychologist 30: 1103-26.

Fritjof Capra

The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism

John Cocke

IBM 801

• The 801 was started as a pure research project led by John Cocke in October 1975 at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center.
• RISC vs. CISC

RISC Refined: Berkeley RISC, Stanford MIPS . . .

Some time after the 801, around 1981, projects at Berkeley (RISC I and II) and Stanford University (MIPS) further developed these concepts. The term RISC came from Berkeley's project, which was the basis for the fast Pyramid minicomputers and SPARC processor. Because of this, features are similar, including a windowed register file (10 global and 22 windowed, vs 8 and 24 for SPARC) with R0 wired to 0. Branches are delayed, and like ARM, all instructions have a bit to specify if condition codes should be set, and execute in a 3 stage pipeline. In addition, next and current PC are visible to the user, and last PC is visible in supervisor mode.

The Berkeley project also produced an instruction cache with some innovative features, such as instruction line prefetch that identified jump instructions, frequently used instructions compacted in memory and expanded upon cache load, multiple cache chips support, and bits to map out defective cache lines.

The Stanford MIPS project was the basis for the MIPS R2000, and like the case with Berkeley project, there are close similarities. MIPS stood for Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages, using the compiler to eliminate register conflicts (and generally hide any unsafe CPU behaviour from programmers). Like the R2000, the MIPS had no condition code register, and a special HI/LO multiply and divide register pair.

Unlike the R2000, the MIPS had only 16 registers, and two delay slots for LOAD/STORE and branch instructions. The PC and last three PC values were tracked for exception handling. In addition, instructions were 'packed' (like the Berkeley RISC), in that many instructions specified two operations that were dispatched in consecutive cycles (not decoded by the cache). In this way, it was a 2 operation VLIW, but executed sequentially. User assembly language was translated to 'packed' format by the assembler.

Being experimental, there was no support for floating point operations.

SOAR (Smalltalk On A RISC) modified the RISC II design to support Smalltalk.

RISC and CISC

Peter Cole

Syntax and Semantics Vol. 3: Speech Act

ed. with Jerry L. Morgan, Academic Press, New York

• Grice, Paul. "Logic and conversation." pp. 41-58
• Searle, John . "Indirect speech acts." pp. 59-82.
• Gordon, D. and Lakoff, George. "Conversational postulates." pp. 83-106.
• Green, Georgia M. "How to get people to do things with words." pp. 107–141.
• Davison, A. "Indirect speech acts and what to do with them." pp. 143–184.
• Cole, Peter. "The synchronic and diachronic status of conversational implicature." pp. 257–288.
• Morgan, J. "Some Interactions of Syntax and Pragmatics," pp. 289-303.

Allan Collins

A Spreading-Activation Theory of Semantic Processing

Psychological Review, 82 (6): 407–428. (with Elizabeth Loftus)

Intelligent CAI

Final Report (1 March 1971 - 31 August 1975, with M. C. Grignetti) [4]

Excerpts

BBN Report No. 3181

Carbonell's contribution was to apply the idea of generative CAI to ill-defined verbal knowledge, in particular the domain of geography. To do this he used a semantic network (8) for representing knowledge about the world. In a semantic network, information is stored about concepts under different entries, much as in an encyclopedia, but according to a well-defined format. Every concept used to describe a given concept can itself be described elsewhere in the network. Thus the program can know about every concept it uses.

When information is represented in the general format (?) a semantic network, then the structure of the network can be used by different procedures to formulate questions to the student, evaluate his answers, answer his questions, make inferences and computations, select new topics for discussion, etc. Freeing the information from the specific use it is to be put makes it available for use in a variety of ways. In this paper we will try to show some of the power for tutorial interaction that can be obtained by such an approach to CAI.

[...]

References and Notes

1. Jaime R. Carbonell, IEEE Trans. Man-Mach. Sys. MMS-11, 190 (1970)

[...]

12. NLS, the On Line System, is a sophisticated modular system which is being used increasingly as an aid in writing, re-organizing, indexing, publishing, and disseminating information of all kinds. It was developed by Douglas Engelbart and his co-workers at the Augmentation Research Center of the Stanford Research Institute.

13. J.S. Brown and R.R. Burton, in Representation and Understanding, D.G. Bobrow and A.M. Collins, eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1975) p. 311. J.S. Brown, R.R. Burton, and A.G. Bell, Intl. J. Man-Mach. Stud. in press (1975).

[...]

20. This research was sponsored by the Personnel and Training Research Programs, Psychological Sciences Division, Office of Naval Research, under Contract No. N00014-71-C-0228, Contract Authority Identification Number NR 154-330. We would like to thank all [...] and especially John Seely Brown and the late Jaime R. Carbonell.

Representation and Understanding

Daniel G. Bobrow and Allan M. Collins, eds., Academic Press, New York, 1975.

• Roger Schank, "The Structure of Episodes in Memory."
  cf. #Roger Schank.
• David Rumelhart, "Notes on a Schema for Stories."
  cf. David Rumelhart (1975) #Donald Norman.
  cf. David Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony (1976) "The Representation of Knowledge in Memory," Technical Report No. 55, University of California, San Diego, Center for Human Information Processing, 1976.
• John Seely Brown and Richard R. Burton, p. 311.
  cf. John Seely Brown, Richard R. Burton, and A. G. Bell, Intl. J. Man-Mach. Stud. in press, 1975.

Jonathan Culler

Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature

Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; Cornell University Press, Ithaca

Edsger Dijkstra

• Guarded Command Language

Semantics

At the moment G is encountered in a calculation, it is evaluated.

• If G is true, execute S
• If G is false, look at the context to decide what to do (in any case, do not execute S)

Guarded Commands, Nondeterminacy and Formal Derivation of Program

Communications of the ACM (August 1975) 18(8): 453–457.

See also

• (1976). A Discipline of Programming, Prentice-Hall Series in Automatic Computation. A systematic introduction to a version of the guarded command language with many worked examples
• (1982). Selected Writings on Computing: A Personal Perspective, Texts and Monographs in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag.

Mary Douglas

Implict Meanings: Essays in Anthropology

• Excerpt from the table of contents and the subject index:

Preface 1999   (Index term) implicit meanings, vii-viii
Preface 1975   (Index term) implicit meanings, xi-xii 
Part 1 Essays on the Implicit 
Introduction   (Index term) explicit/implicit, 3-7  

Paul Feyerabend

Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge

Google Preview

• /Paul Feyerabend

Aaron Finerman

Professionalism in the computing field

Communications of the ACM, Volume 18, Issue 1 (January 1975), pp. 4-9. ACM

Abstract

The term professional means different things to different people; nevertheless, there are certain general technical and social standards normally associated with a professional. Further, the term is more generally applied to the practitioner rather than to the researcher. But within the rather broad definition specified, the computing practitioner is, as yet, not regarded as a professional. Each of the four types of institutions—academic, industry, government, and the professional society—that educate, employ, regulate, and mold the practitioner contributes to the "nonprofessional" status of the computing practitioner. The roles of these institutions are examined, various shortcomings are noted, and recommended changes are suggested. In the last analysis, professional status is not bestowed; it is earned. However, universities and industry, specifically, can make certain improvements to help the computing practitioner achieve professional status.

• Cited by: John Buck, Ben Shneiderman, "An internship in information systems: Combining computer science education with realistic problems," ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, v.8, n.3, pp. 80-83, July 1976.

Jerry Fodor

The Language of Thought

Harvard University Press

Hans-Georg Gadamer

Truth and Method

Cited by: Winograd (1985)

Hermeneutics and Social Science

Philosophy Social Criticism / Cultural Hermeneutics 2 (1975) 307-316, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland; http://psc.sagepub.com; 2 (4): 307–316.

• Philosophical Hermeneutics (1976)
• Hermeneutic circle

Johan Galtung

• Galtung received the first of seven honorary doctorates in 1975.

Essays in Peace Research

1. Peace: Research, Education, Action. (1975)
2. Peace, War and Defense. (1976)
3. Peace and Social Structure. (1978)
4. Peace and World Structure. (1980)
5. Peace Research: Some Case Studies. (1980)

Howard Gardner

The Shattered Mind

New York: Knopf

• The Quest for Mind: Jean Piaget, Claude Levi-Strauss and the Structuralist Movement (1973)
• Artful Scribbles: The Significance of Children's Drawings (1980)
• Art, Mind and Brain: A Cognitive Approach to Creativity (1982)
• Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983)
• The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (1985)
• To Open Minds: Chinese Clues to the Dilemma of Contemporary Education (1989)
• The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach (1991)

Eugene Garfield

The World Brain as seen by an Information Entrepreneur

In: Manfred Kochen (1975): pp. 155-176. pdf

• Cf. Eugene Garfield (1976) "The World Brain as Seen by an Information Entrepreneur" (Comment on Garfield (1975)) in: Essays of an Information Scientist by Eugene Garfield, vol 2 (1974-1976) (Philadelphia PA: ISI Press, 1977) pp. 638-639 (reprinted from Current Contents no. 48, Nov 29, 1976)
• Cf. W. Boyd Rayward (1975) The Universe of Information

Paul Grice

Logic and conversation

In: Peter Cole (1975): pp. 41-58 (Reprinted in Studies in the Way of Words, ed. H. P. Grice, pp. 22–40. Harvard University Press, 1989)

• Cf. Implicature

Ian Hacking

Why Does Language Matter to Philosophy?

Google [5]

The Emergence of Probability: a Philosophical Study of Early Ideas About Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference

Cambridge University Press

Eric Hobsbawm

The Age of Capital, 1848-1875

John Holland

Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems

• genetic algorithm, complex adaptive system, Holland's schema theorem
• (1995) Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity
• (1998) Emergence: From Chaos to Order

John Hutchins

Languages of Indexing and Classification: A Linguistic Study of Structures and Functions

(Librarianship and Information Studies 3), Stevenage, Peter Peregrinus

Subjects, Themes and Case Grammars

Lingua 35(2), 1975, pp. 101-133

• Charles J. Fillmore, Case grammar

See also

• (1976) reviewed Werner Abraham (1975) A Linguistic Approach to Metaphor, in: Lingua 38 (1976) pp. 359-362
• (1977) "On the Problem of 'Aboutness' in Document Analysis." Journal of Informatics 1(1), 1977, pp. 17-35

  "The Concept of 'Aboutness' in Subject Indexing." Aslib Proceedings 30(5), May 1978, 172-181. Repr. in: Karen Sparck Jones, and Peter Willett (eds.) Readings in Information Retrieval (San Francisco: Morgan Kauffmann, 1997), 93-97

• (1977) "On the Structure of Scientific Texts." UEA Papers in Linguistics 5, Sept. 1977, 18-39
• Publications [6]
• William John Hutchins, paged by User:BirgerH 2008-07-07.

U. Illinois

Center for the Study of Reading

Techinical Reports ERIC pdf

Leonard Kleinrock

Queueing Systems

Vol. I – Theory, Wiley Interscience, 1975

Vol. II – Computer Applications, Wiley Interscience, 1976

• "Hierarchical Routing for Large Networks, Performance Evaluation and Optimization", Computer Networks, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 155–174, January 1977 (with Farok Kamoun)

Manfred Kochen

Information for Action: from Knowledge to Wisdom

ed., New York: Academic Press

See also: (1972) "WISE: a World Information Synthesis and Encyclopaedia," Journal of Documentation 28: 322-341

See also: (1976) "What makes a citizen information system used and useful". In: Manfred Kochen and Joseph C. Donohue (eds.) Information for the Community, Chicago: American Library Association, 1976. Chapter 10, pp. 149-170.

• "Evolution of Brainlike Social Organs," pp. 1-
• "Who Should Control Societies," pp. 21-
• "What is Information for Policy Making?" pp. 33-
• Karl W. Deutsch, "On the Learning Capacity of Large Political Systems." pp. 61-83.
• R. G. Havelock, "Research on the utilization of knowledge," pp. 87-107.
• A. A. Aines, "Internationalization of scientific and technical information programs: opportunity and challenge," pp. 139-152.
• Eugene Garfield, "The World Brain as seen by an Information Entrepreneur," pp. 155-160.
• Harold D. Lasswell, "Constraints on the Use of Knowledge in Decision Making," pp. 161-169.
• Derek J. de Solla Price, "Some Aspects of 'World Brain' Notions." pp. 177-203.
• Howard J. Hilton, "An Ideal Information Access System: Some Economic Implications."

Information and the Quality of Life

In: Anthony Debons and William J. Cameron (eds.) Perspectives in Information Science (Leyden: Noordhof) pp. 569-587

David Kolb

with Ron Fry (both at Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University)

Toward an Applied Theory of Experiential Learning

In: C. Cooper (ed.) Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley.

• He named his "Experiential Learning Model" to emphasize its links to ideas from John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Kurt Lewin, and others writers of the experiential learning paradigm. His model was developed predominantly for use with adult education, but has found widespread pedagogical implications in higher education.
• experiential education, cooperative learning, action learning, active learning, learning by doing, discovery learning, critical pedagogy

Harold Lasswell

Harold Lasswell's 1975 works

• Among the factors that constrain the application of knowledge in public decision making or private choice, Lasswell cites the values inherent in one's goal, the control of assets, and the decision structures. He uses decision phases to illustrate further constraints which might be remedied by a systematic approach. cf. World Brain
• Lasswell emphasizes the growing interdependence of the world and its effects on developments in the United States. He uses the seven-phase model of the decision process -- intelligence, promotion, prescription, invocation, application, termination, and appraisal -- to discuss future trends. cf. Education
• The authors argue that a regard for human dignity is denied by deprivations imposed on individuals for nonconforming political opinion or behavior. They survey transnational declarations on freedom from discrimination and freedom of expression, concluding that such doctrines are indeed fragile and require vigilant protection. The article outlines factual background, basic community policies, trends in decision, and possible future developments relative to the shaping and sharing of controversial opinions. cf. Utilitarianism, Egalitarianism
• After defining respect as a major value, this article reviews relevant trends in decision. The discussion includes claims relating to outcomes (choice, slavery, caste, and apartheid) and to equality of opportunity (race). cf. Utilitarianism, Egalitarianism
• The first four chapters by the editors create a "framework" for applying the policy sciences to problems of population policy. Succeeding chapters apply this framework to particular countries worldwide. The framework depends largely on Lasswell's policy sciences model. cf. Holism, Contextualism
• Distinguishing between population decisions (public order) and choices (civic order), Lasswell suggests how the Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be used to examine values relative to population policies. He briefly outlines the policy sciences approach for contextual, problem-oriented, multi-method analysis. He indicates how a "conceptual map" developed from this approach can be used to analyze population issues. cf. Contextualism, Concept map

Excerpts from Rodney Muth, Mary M. Finley, Marcia F. Muth (eds.) Harold D. Lasswell: An Annotated Bibliography, Springer, 1990. pp. 245-247. (Emphases are not original.)

Google Preview

Frank Leavis

The Living Principle: 'English' as a Discipline of Thought

• Thought, Words and Creativity: Art and Thought in Lawrence (1976)
• 1988#Michael Bell
  http://books.google.com/books?id=dMdZDDyPIl8C
• 1999#Richard Harland. Literary theory from Plato to Barthes: an introductory history‎
  http://books.google.com/books?id=10Z3DxQw0kQC

David Lewis

Languages and Language

In: K. Gunderson (ed.) Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Language, vol. 7, pp. 3–35. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Reprinted in: A. P. Martinich (ed.) The Philosophy of Language 3rd ed., pp. 538–557. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)

Henry Lucas

Henry Cameron Lucas Jr.

Why Information Systems Fail

Columbia University Press, New York.

Quotation

As a student of MIS in the 1980s, certain research efforts impressed upon me the importance of focusing on the role of people in systems. Henry Lucas’ study of why information systems fail (Lucas, 1975) is a case in point. In particular, his finding that human behavior is at least as important as technical excellence to the success of an information system left a lasting impression on me. It is easy to be dazzled by the stream of technological innovations in hardware and software. However systems are built for people. It is how people react to technology that is of fundamental importance to systems' success. Today the concept of the "operational feasibility" of a systems idea is included in all textbooks on systems analysis and design. To be assured that a systems idea has a fighting chance of succeeding, the people for whom the system is being developed must ultimately accept the system and use it in the manner it was developed to be used.

-- Edward J. Szewczak (Canisius College), Selected Readings on the Human Side of Information Technology [7]

Thomas Luckmann

The Sociology of Language

Donald MacKay

The Embodied Mind: A Neurological Perspective

The Fremantel Lectures, Balliol College, Oxford (unpublished)

Robert Merton

Sociology of Science in Europe

ed. with A. Podgorecki & J. Gaston, Southern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale, Ill

Society for Social Studies of Science (4S)

founded with Robert K. Merton being the first president.

• The name is reminiscent of The Social Function of Science (1939) by John Desmond Bernal. Note the John Desmond Bernal Prize awarded since 1980.

Marvin Minsky

A Framework for Representing Knowledge

In: The Psychology of Computer Vision, P. Winston (ed.), McGraw-Hill, 1975.

Originally, MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306, June, 1974. http://courses.media.mit.edu/2004spring/mas966/Minsky%201974%20Framework%20for%20knowledge.pdf

Reprinted in Shorter versions in: J. Haugeland, Ed., Mind Design, MIT Press, 1981, and in: Cognitive Science, Collins, Allan and Edward E. Smith (eds.) Morgan-Kaufmann, 1992.

1. LOCAL AND GLOBAL THEORIES FOR VISION

• "For there exists a great chasm between those, on the one side, who relate everything to a single central vision, one system more or less coherent or articulate, in terms of which they understand, think and feel–a single, universal, organizing principle in terms of which alone all that they are and say has significance–and, on the other side, those who pursue many ends, often unrelated and even contradictory, connected, if at all, only in some de facto way, for some psychological or physiological cause, related by no moral or esthetic principle." -- Isaiah Berlin (1957). The Hedgehog and the Fox.

  Compare this opening quotation with:

  ``Schumacher argues that there are two types of problems in the world:

  • convergent
  • divergent
  For Schumacher recognising of which type a problem is is one of the arts of living.`` -- Ernst Schumacher (1977). A Guide for the Perplexed#Two types of problem.

Donald Norman

with David Rumelhart and The LNR Research Group

Explorations in Cognition

San Francisco: W. H. Fremand Co., 1975.

David Rumelhart

• (1975) "Notes on a Schema for Stories." #Allan Collins
• (1976) "Understanding and Summarizing Brief Stories," Technical Report No. 58, University of California, San Diego, Center for Human Information Processing, 1976.
• (1977) Introduction to Human Information Processing.
• (1987) Parallel Distributed Processing: Psychological and Biological Models, (with James L. McClelland).
• (1990) Neuroscience and Connectionist Theory (with Mark A. Gluck at Rutgers, cf. Gordon Bower)
• Rumelhart Prize

Gordon Pask

Conversation, Cognition and Learning

Elsevier, New York

• Cf. Conversation Theory, Applications in Education and Epistemology (Elsevier, 1976)
• Cf. Integrative learning
• Cf. Interactions of Actors Theory

The Cybernetics of Human Learning and Performance

Hutchinson

• Cf. New Cybernetics (Gordon Pask)
• Cf. Second-order cybernetics

Walker Percy

The Message in the Bottle

"The Delta Factor"

• Cf. Triangle of reference, symbolic of The Meaning of Meaning
• Marcus Smith (1976) "Talking about Talking: An Interview with Walker Percy," New Orleans Review, 5 No. 1 (1976) 13-18. reprinted in Conversations with Walker Percy ed. by Lewis A. Lawson, Victor A. Kramer. book.google

Pfeiffer

J. William Pfeiffer & John E. Jones (1975).

A Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training, Vols. 1-5.

La Jolla, CA: University Associates.

• Moshe Feldenkrais (1975). "Awareness Through Movement." In: John E. Jones and J. William Pfeiffer (eds.) Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators. La Jolla, CA: University Associates, 1975.
• cf. Leonard David Goodstein, Timothy M. Nolan
• Experiential learning, 5-stage model of experiential learning cycle, including experiencing, publishing, processing, generalizing, and applying.

Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini

Language and Learning: The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky

(ed.) book.google

John Pocock

The Machiavellian Moment

• ``Pocock is celebrated not merely as an historian, but as a pioneer of a new type of historical methodology: contextualism, i.e., the study of 'texts in context.' In the 1960s and early '70s, he, (introducing languages of political thought) along with Quentin Skinner (focusing on authorial intention), and John Dunn (stressing biography), united informally to undertake this approach as, the 'Cambridge School' of the history of political thought. Hereafter for the Cambridge School and its adherents, the then-reigning method of textual study, that of engaging a vaunted 'canon' of previously pronounced "major" political works in a typically anachronistic and disjointed fashion, simply would not do.`` -- J. G. A. Pocock#The 'Cambridge School'

Michael Polanyi

Meaning

Univ. of Chicago Press. (With Harry Prosch)

http://books.google.com/books?id=jBx1KTcJ7qIC

Excerpts

The Eclipse of Thought

In a sense this book could be said to be about intellectual freedom. Yet its title, Meaning, is not really misleading, since ... the achievement of meaning cannot properly be divorced from intellectual freedom.

Personal Knowledge

Reconstruction

From Perception to Metaphor

Perhaps I. A. Richards has made as great an effort to explain the power of metaphors as anyone so far. It is both the likeness and the unlikeness of the two parts of a metaphor, the tenor and the vehicle, that somehow account, he thinks, for the way it works. There is, he says, a "peculiar modification of the tenor which the vehicle brings about," and this is "even more the work of their unlikenesses than of their likenesses."5 But Richards does not explain to us how this peculiar interaction of likeness and unlikeness can have such a powerful effect upon us.

Except for very simple metaphors, which Max Black thinks can be viewed as substitutions or comparisons, an "interaction" view, such as he thinks I. A. Richards' view is, seems to Black to be the best. Yet there are many complications in this view. In the end Black seems to think that "the secret and mystery of metaphor" reside in the connection that the reader is forced to make between the two ideas in a metaphor, but how this works remains unexplained. In spite of the fact that he can and does use metaphors in his efforts to account for the "secret" of the metaphor (i.e., he has a tacit understanding of "metaphor"), Black fails to unravel this secret explicitly. In fact, he seems to think that, even if we could state a number of relevant relations betwen the tenor and the vehicle, "the set of literal statements so obtained will not have the same power to inform and enlighten as the original." Although he admits that an attempt to explicate the "grounds" of a metaphor can be valuable, he holds that we must not regard this "as an adequate cognitive substitute for the original." Thus, although Max Black seems to regard metaphors as communicating cognitive content, they seem to defy all his efforts to state just what this cognitive content is. A "suitable reader," he says, must "educe for himself, with a nice feeling for their relative priorities and degrees of importance," the various relations in the metaphor which, when we try to express them explicitly, we can only present wrongly as having equal weight.6

What is altogether missing in this honest admission by Black of his theory's limited ability to unpack metaphors is any sort of explanation of why or how a metaphor can move us so greatly -- can carry us away. At best he shows only that we learn something cognitively from a metaphor that we did not know before and that this has something to do with a "suitable" reader's capacity to make a connection between "the two ideas" in a metaphor.

Works of Art

• ``It spells out his positions on language and art, religion and society. It integrates these with his previous accounts of personal knowledge so as to achieve something close to a synthesis ...``
• ``Published very shortly before his death in February 1976, Meaning is the culmination of Michael Polanyi's philosophic endeavors. With the assistance of Harry Prosch, Polanyi goes beyond his earlier critique of scientific "objectivity" to investigate meaning as founded upon the imaginative and creative faculties.

  Establishing that science is an inherently normative form of knowledge and that society gives meaning to science instead of being given the "truth" by science, Polanyi contends here that the foundation of meaning is the creative imagination. Largely through metaphorical expression in poetry, art, myth, and religion, the imagination is used to synthesize the otherwise chaotic and disparate elements of life. To Polanyi these integrations stand with those of science as equally valid modes of knowledge. He hopes this view of the foundation of meaning will restore validity to the traditional ideals that were undercut by modern science. Polanyi also outlines the general conditions of a free society that encourage varied approaches to truth, and includes an illuminating discussion of how to restore, to modern minds, the possibility for the acceptance of religion.`` -- Description on the back cover

• ``By December of 1973, Polanyi had apparently made up his mind to start fresh with another collaborator. He invited Richard Gelwick [...] Gelwick was in Cambridge at this time on sabbatical studying with Peacocke and dutifully began meeting with Polanyi, providing detailed notes on their conversations, and beginning the process of pulling Polanyi's articles, notes, and oral instructions into a coherent whole.`` -- excerpt from Harry Prosch 1917-2005
  • cf. Arthur Peacocke (1981) The Sciences and Theology in the Twentieth Century
  • cf. Christopher Peacocke (1976) contributed to Truth and Meaning
• Personal Knowledge (1958)
• The Tacit Dimension (1967)
• tacit knowledge v explicit knowledge
• Tradition & Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical [8]
• Harry Prosch (1986) Michael Polanyi: A Critical Exposition
  http://books.google.com/books?id=ruGlepBJCHUC

Hilary Putnam

Mind, Language and Reality

Philosophical Papers Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press

"The Meaning of 'Meaning'"

• Cf. The Meaning of Meaning whose first chapter "Thoughts, Words and Things" is analogous to Mind, Language and Reality

Anthony Quinton

Social Objects

Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 75: 1-27

Boyd Rayward

The Universe of Information: The Work of Paul Otlet for Documentation and International Organisation

FID520, VINITI, Moscow (txt)

• In 1937 the Institute for Intellectual Co-operation organised a World Congress for Universal Documentation in Paris. This was an enormous congress attended by representatives of governments as well as by those interested in documentation in a more private capacity. It was, in fact, the first time that such a large, influential congress had been held in the field since the IIB conferences of 1908 and 1910 and those of the UIA in 1910 and 1913. Here Otlet and La Fontaine came into much respectful praise. Their positions as grand old men of European documentation were clearly acknowledged. The idea of a Universal Network or System for Documentation was taken up and the IID once more changed its name and statutes to become the International Federation for Documentation, in order better to promote this. Here there was much talk of H. G. Wells' idea of a World Brain, a new form of the encyclopedia, an idea which, in a different form, Otlet had been writing about for decades. Here Otlet met Wells and made "magnificent improvisations". (p. 356)
• It is indeed paradoxical that libraries and archival repositories preserve large masses of documents without having the resources to catalog, analyse and circulate them [...]. The Universal Network of Documentation is called on to organise the liason of these reservoirs and repertories, of producers and users. The ultimate goal is to realise the World Encyclopedia according to the needs of the twentieth century. (p. 357) (my emphasis)

Paul Ricoeur

The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language

trans. by Robert Czerny, Kathleen McLaughlin and S. J., John Costello (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978)

Stephen Robertson

Explicit and Implicit Variables in Information Retrieval Systems

Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 26(4): 214-22

Peter Russell

Peter Russell & Tony Buzan

Mind map

See also:

• abstract model
• argument map
• cluster diagram
• cognitive map
• concept map [#]
• conceptual blending
• conceptual domain
• conceptual graph
• conceptual metaphor
• conceptual schema
• conceptual system
• data modeling
• entity-relationship model
• internal model
• Ishikawa diagram
• knowledge mapping
• knowledge representation

• logical data model
• mental model
• mental space
• mind map
• network diagram
• object-relationship modelling
• object role modeling
• ontology
• physical data model
• rich picture
• semantic mapper
• semantic net
• semantic web
• spider diagram
• topic map
• treemap
• Tree of Knowledge System

See also:

• global brain (1982)
• great chain of being

Peter Russell#Early life and education

Peter Russell was born in London, England. He attended Steyning Grammar School and Maidstone Grammar School. In 1965 he was awarded an Open Exhibition to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, to study Mathematics. In 1969, he gained a First Class Honours in Theoretical Physics and Experimental Psychology. He then went to Rishikesh, India, where he trained as a teacher of Transcendental Meditation under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. In 1971, he gained a post-graduate degree in Computer Science. From 1971 to 1974, he studied for a Ph.D. on the psychophysiology of meditation at Bristol University.

In 1975, he began working with Tony Buzan teaching mind maps, and memory skills to various European corporations. (my emphasis) In the eighties, he expanded this work to include personal development tools and mindsets, teaming up with Roger Evans to run programs on creativity enhancement.

Saracevic

Tefko Saracevic

Relevance: A review of and a framework for thinking on the notion of information science.

Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 26(6): 321-343.

Roger Schank

The Structure of Episodes in Memory

In: D.G. Bobrow and A.N. Collins (eds.), Representation and Understanding, Academic Press, New York, 237-272.

• (1977) Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Hillsdale (with Robert P. Abelson)
• (1986) Explanation Patterns. Hillsdale, Erlbaum.
• (1990) Tell Me A Story: A New Look at Real and Artificial Memory. Scribners.

  People learn very easily from stories -- so easily that they can be taught to firmly believe things that aren't true, as Schank notes in passing.

• case based reasoning
• Homepage

John Searle

Indirect Speech Acts

In: Peter Cole (1975): pp. 59-82 (Reprinted in Pragmatics: A Reader, ed. S. Davis, pp. 265–277. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)

• cf. Indirect speech acts

Martin Seligman

Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death

W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.

• Learned helplessness

Steven Shapin

Phrenological Knowledge and the Social Structure of Early Nineteenth-Century Edinburgh

Annals of Science, 32: 219-243

Slamecka

Vladimir Slamecka (1975).

Pragmatic observations on theoretical research in information science.

Journal of the American Society of Information Science 26:318-320.

Elliott Sober

Simplicity

Oxford University Press

Dan Sperber

Rethinking Symbolism

Original © 1974. Alice L. Morton (trans.) 1975.

Cambridge University Press, 1975

Google [9] The back matter includes part of Edmund Leach's review for The Time Literary Supplement. See /Sperber.

Leo Strauss

The Argument and the Action of Plato's Laws

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1975

Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss

Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, 1975 (ed. by Hilail Gilden)

Patrick Suppes

The School of the Future: Technological Possibilities

In: L. Rubin (ed.), The Future of Education: Perspectives on Tomorrow's Schooling, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 145-157.

From Behaviorism to Neobehaviorism

Theory and Decision, 6, 269-285.

• http://www.stanford.edu/~psuppes/psych.html
• http://www.stanford.edu/~psuppes/language.html
• http://www.stanford.edu/~psuppes/education.html

National Medal of Science, 1990

"For his broad efforts to deepen the theoretical and empirical understanding of four major areas: the measurement of subjective probability and utility in uncertain situations; the development and testing of general learning theory; the semantics and syntax of natural language; and the use of interactive computer programs for instruction." [10]

Peter Unger

Ignorance: A Case for Skepticism

Oxford University Press

Roberto Unger

Knowledge and Politics

Free Press

Gerald Weinberg

An Introduction to General Systems Thinking

Wiley-Interscience

George Wells

Did Jesus Exist?

Prometheus Books

• Wells "avoids polemic and speculation" and argues there was no historical evidence of Jesus existing.

Edward Wilson

Sociobiology: The New Synthesis

Yovits

Marshall C. Yovits (1975)

A theoretical framework for the development of information science.

In: International Federation for Documentation (FID) Study Committee: Research on the Theoretical Basis of Information, 24-26 April 1974, Moscow. FID 530 (pp. 90-114). Moscow: VINITI, 1975.

• (1969). "Information science: Toward the development of a true scientific discipline." American Documentation Vol. 20, pp. 369-376.
• A. I. Mikhailov, A. I. Chernyi & R. S. Giliarevskii (1969). "Informatics: Its Scope and Methods." In: On Theoretical Problems of Informatics. FID 435 (pp. 7-24). Moscow: VINITI, 1969.